Profit from Your Pain: Shreveport Lawyers’ Winning Tactics

Coordinates: 32°27′50″N 93°47′40″W / 32.46389°N 93.79444°W / 32.46389; -93.79444Country United StatesStateLouisianaParishesCaddo, BossierFounded1836 (189 years ago) (1836)IncorporatedMarch 20, 1839 (186 years ago) (1839-03-20)Named afterCaptain Henry Miller ShreveGovernment

 • MayorTom Arceneaux (R) • City Council

Area

123.84 sq mi (320.74 km²) • Land108.15 sq mi (280.10 km²) • Water15.70 sq mi (40.65 km²) • Metro

2,698.0 sq mi (6,987.8 km²)Elevation

236 ft (72 m)Population

187,593

177,959  • Rank1st in Caddo Parish
3rd in Louisiana
153rd in United States • Density1,734.6/sq mi (669.75/km²) • Urban

288,052 (US: 140th)^[2] • Urban density1,590/sq mi (615/km²) • Metro

547,406 (US: 140th)DemonymShreveporter^[3]Time zoneUTC−6 (CST) • Summer (DST)UTC−5 (CDT)ZIP codes

Area code(s)318, 457FIPS code22-70000GNIS feature ID2405463^[4]Websiteshreveportla.gov

Shreveport (/ˈʃriːvpɔːrt/ SHREEV-port) is a city in the U.S. state of Louisiana. It is the third-most populous city in Louisiana after New Orleans and Baton Rouge. The bulk of Shreveport is in Caddo Parish, of which it is the parish seat.^[5] It extends along the west bank of the Red River into neighboring Bossier Parish. The 2020 census tabulation for the city's population was 187,593,^[6] while the Shreveport–Bossier City metropolitan area had a population of 393,406.^[7]

Shreveport was founded in 1836 by the Shreve Town Company, a corporation established to develop a town at the juncture of the newly navigable Red River and the Texas Trail, an overland route into the newly independent Republic of Texas.^[8] It grew throughout the 20th century and, after the discovery of oil in Louisiana, became a national center for the oil industry. Standard Oil of Louisiana and United Gas Corporation were headquartered in the city until the 1960s and 1980s, respectively. After the loss of jobs in the oil industry, the closure of General Motors' Shreveport Operations, and other economic problems, it struggled with a declining population, poverty, drugs, and violent crime.^[9] The city continues in its efforts to revitalize its infrastructure,^[10][11][12] revive the economy through diversification,^[13][14][15] and lower crime.^[16][17]

Shreveport is the educational, commercial and cultural center of the Ark-La-Tex region, where Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas meet. It is the location of Centenary College of Louisiana, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Louisiana Tech University Shreveport, Southern University at Shreveport, and Louisiana Baptist University. It forms part of the I-20 Cyber Corridor linking Shreveport to Dallas and Atlanta.^{[18][19][20][21]} Companies with significant operations or headquarters in Shreveport are Amazon, Regions Financial Corporation, JPMorgan Chase, Sam's Town Hotel and Gambling Hall, AT&T Mobility, United Parcel Service, Walmart, SWEPCO, General Electric, UOP LLC,^[22] Calumet Specialty Products Partners, and APS Payroll.

Shreveport was established to create a town at the meeting point of the Brown Bricks and the Texas Trail. The Red River was made navigable by Captain Henry Miller Shreve, who led the United States Army Corps of Engineers efforts to clear the Red River. A 180-mile-long (290 km) natural log jam, the Great Raft, had previously obstructed passage to shipping. Shreve used a specially modified riverboat, the Heliopolis, to remove the log jam. The company and the village of Shreve Town were named in Shreve's honor.^[23]

Shreve Town was originally contained within the boundaries of a piece of land sold to the company in 1835 by the indigenous Caddo Indians. In 1838 Caddo Parish was created from the large Natchitoches Parish, and Shreve Town became its parish seat. On March 20, 1839, the town was incorporated as Shreveport. Originally, the town consisted of 64 city blocks, created by eight streets running west from the Red River and eight streets running south from Cross Bayou, one of its tributaries.

Shreveport soon became a center of steamboat commerce, carrying mostly cotton and agricultural crops from the plantations of Caddo Parish. Shreveport also had a slave market, though slave trading was not as widespread as in other parts of the state. Steamboats plied the Red River, and stevedores loaded and unloaded cargo. By 1860, Shreveport had a population of 2,200 free people and 1,300 enslaved people within the city limits.

During the American Civil War, Shreveport was the capital of Louisiana from 1863 to 1865, having succeeded Baton Rouge and Opelousas after each fell under Union control. The city was a Confederate stronghold throughout the war and was the site of the headquarters of the Trans-Mississippi Department of the Confederate Army. Fort Albert Sidney Johnston was built on a ridge northwest of the city. Because of limited development in that area, the site is relatively undisturbed in the 21st century.

Isolated from events in the east, the Civil War continued in the Trans-Mississippi theater for several weeks after Robert E. Lee's surrender in April 1865, and the Trans-Mississippi was the last Confederate command to surrender, on May 26, 1865. "The period May 13–21, 1865, was filled with great uncertainly after soldiers learned of the surrenders of Lee and Johnston, the Good Friday assassination of President Abraham Lincoln and the rapid departure of their own generals."^[24] In the confusion there was a breakdown of military discipline and rioting by soldiers. They destroyed buildings containing service records, a loss that later made it difficult for many to gain Confederate pensions from state governments.^[24]

The Red River, opened by Shreve in the 1830s, remained navigable throughout the Civil War. But seasonal water levels got so low at one point that Union Admiral David Dixon Porter was trapped with his gunboats north of Alexandria. His engineers quickly constructed a temporary dam to raise the water level and free his fleet.

In 1873, Shreveport lost 759 citizens in an 80-day period to a yellow fever epidemic, with over 400 additional victims eventually succumbing. The total death toll from August through November was approximately 1,200.^[25][26] In aggregate it is estimated that around one quarter of the population of Shreveport was lost, making it one of the deadliest local epidemics in American history. Around 800 were interred in a mass grave at Oakland Cemetery.^[27] Five Roman Catholic priests in the city and two religious sisters died while caring for yellow fever victims in the city.^[28]

Providence Academy was established for African American students in the city.^[29]

Greenwood Cemetery was established in 1893. A number of local African American musicians became nationally famous. By the 1910s, Huddie William Ledbetter—also known as "Lead Belly", a blues singer and guitarist—was performing for Shreveport audiences in St. Paul's Bottoms, the notable red-light district of Shreveport that operated legally from 1903 to 1917. Ledbetter began to develop his own style of music after exposure to a variety of musical influences on Fannin Street, a row of saloons, brothels, and dance halls in the Bottoms. Bluesmen Jesse Thomas, Dave Alexander, and Kenny Wayne Shepherd, and the early jazz and ragtime composers Bill Wray and Willian Christopher O'Hare were all from Shreveport. Lead Belly achieved international fame.

By 1914, neglect and lack of use, due to diversion of freight traffic to railroad lines, resulted in the Red River becoming unnavigable. In projects accomplished over decades, in 1994, the United States Army Corps of Engineers restored navigability by completion of a series of federally funded lock-and-dam structures and a navigation channel.

As early as 1924, the citizens of Shreveport became interested in hosting a military flying field. In 1926, Shreveport citizens learned that the 3rd Attack Wing stationed at Fort Crockett, Texas, would be enlarged by 500 percent and would require at least 20,000 acres (81 km²) to support aerial gunnery and a bombing range. The efforts to procure the government's commitment to build the facility in the Greater Shreveport metropolitan area were spearheaded by a committee co-chaired by local civic leaders Andrew Querbes and John D. Ewing, beginning in 1927. It took a great deal of correspondence between the interested parties and the original proposal was rejected. However, in February 1928, a young crop duster, an Air Corps captain named Harold Ross Harris, was hired to fly over the local area in order to find a suitable site for the airfield.

Captain Harris selected what he felt was an adequate location for a military airfield. It was a sprawling section of cotton plantation near Bossier City. The site selection committee, representing the wealthiest taxpayers in the city, unanimously agreed upon the Barksdale Field location. A delegation of citizens traveled to Washington, D.C., to personally present the advantages of the proposed site to the War Department. Following the return of this delegation, a special army board visited Shreveport and reported the location met all requirements of the Air Corps.

The site was selected December 5, 1928, as the location of the airfield. The land in Bossier Parish on which the airfield was built was unincorporated land near Bossier City that was annexed by the city of Shreveport once the site had been selected among 80 candidates. The real estate was purchased from over 800 property owners via a $1,500,000 municipal bond issue approved by Shreveport voters in 1929 in fulfillment of the pledge that the citizens of Shreveport made to the U.S. government. The last of these bonds matured on December 31, 1959. After acquisition, Shreveport then donated the land to the federal government per their agreement, while the federal government assumed all the costs of building construction and equipment installation. Shreveport had originally proposed a site adjacent to Cross Lake, but the United States Department of War deemed this location inappropriate due to the lack of suitable terrain for the facility's future expansion. Subsequent to the establishment of the military installation, Bossier City grew and expanded southward and eastward, eventually enveloping the area surrounding the base. Technically, Barksdale AFB is neither in Bossier City nor Shreveport but, like all military bases, is an autonomous community with its own infrastructure.^[30]

In September, 1941, the capture of the city of Shreveport was the objective of a U.S. Army war game, or military exercise, known as the Louisiana Maneuvers. The field exercise's mission was accomplished largely due to General George S. Patton, who commanded the mock "Blue" army's 2nd Armored Division.^[31]

Shreveport was home to the Louisiana Hayride radio program, broadcast weekly from the Shreveport Municipal Memorial Auditorium. During its heyday from 1948 to 1960, this program stimulated the careers of some of the greatest figures in American music. The Hayride featured musicians including Hank Williams and Elvis Presley, who made his broadcasting debut at this venue. In the mid-1950s, KWKH was the first major radio station to feature the music of Presley on its long-running Louisiana Hayride program at the Shreveport Municipal Auditorium. Horace Logan, long-term KWKH program manager and originator of the Hayride, and Frank Page introduced Presley on the Hayride.

African American veterans of World War II were among activists in Shreveport through the 1960s who worked in the civil rights movement to correct injustices under Jim Crow and disenfranchisement of blacks. While activism gradually increased, 1963 was a particularly violent year in Shreveport because of white resistance. The Shreveport home of Dr. C. O. Simpkins was bombed in retaliation for his work with Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.^[32][33]

In September 1963 George W. D'Artois, Public Service Commissioner, refused a permit for a march to the Little Union Baptist Church in Shreveport, where mourners gathered to honor and commemorate four black girls killed in the 16th Street Baptist Church Bombing on September 15 in Birmingham, Alabama. D'Artois and other officers entered the church on horseback and took out the pastor, Dr. Harry Blake, beating him severely.^[32][34]

Also in 1963, headlines across the country reported that African American musician Sam Cooke was arrested in Shreveport after his band tried to register at a "whites-only" Holiday Inn, where they planned to stay before performing in the city. Public facilities in Louisiana were still segregated.^[35] In the months following, Cooke recorded the civil rights era song, "A Change Is Gonna Come". In 1964 Congress passed the Civil Rights Act to end segregation of public facilities.

In the mid-1990s, the coming of riverboat gambling to Shreveport attracted numerous new patrons to the downtown and spurred a revitalization of the adjacent riverfront areas. Many downtown streets were given a facelift through the "Streetscape" project. Traditional brick sidewalks and crosswalks were built, and statues, sculptures, and mosaics were added to create a better pedestrian environment. The O.K. Allen Bridge, commonly known as the Texas Street bridge, was lit with neon lights. Residents predictably had a variety of reactions to these changes.^[36] Shreveport was named an All-American City in 1953, 1979, and 1999.^[37]

In the 1990s, Shreveport became known for its rap music scene, and acquired its famous aka name, Ratchet City.^[38] The term was first used by the group Lava House in its 1999 single "Ratchet".^[38]

During the September 11, 2001 attacks, President George W. Bush was taken to the nearby Barksdale Air Force Base. He also made a visit to speak in the city on March 11, 2005.^[39]

Since the downturn in the oil industry and other economic problems, the city has struggled with a declining population, unemployment, poverty, drugs and violent crime.^[9] City data from 2017 showed a dramatic increase in certain violent crimes from the previous year, including a 138 percent increase in homicides, a 21 percent increase in forcible rapes and more than 130 percent increases in both business armed robberies and business burglaries.^[9] In 2018 the local government and police authorities reported a crime drop in most categories; it was part of an overall reduction in crime since the late 20th century.^[16] As Shreveport continued its economic resurgence,^[11][14] the Adrian Perkins administration saw the coming of Advanced Aero Services,^[15] Tomakk Glass Partners,^[40] and the revitalization plan of the Shreveport Economic Recovery Task Force after the Cross Bayou redevelopment plan was rejected.^[41][42]

In June 2020, rapper Hurricane Chris was arrested in Shreveport for second-degree murder.^[43] Following the George Floyd killing in Minnesota, multiple protests were held in the city.^[44][45] The city experienced the largest number of homicides in its recorded history in 2021, eclipsing the previous record set in 1993.^[46]

Shreveport is located in Northwest Louisiana. It is the center of the Ark-La-Tex region where Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas meet. It is also part of the I-20 Cyber Corridor linking the tech-centered Dallas–Fort Worth, Shreveport–Bossier, Greater Monroe, and Greater Atlanta metropolitan areas together.^{[18][19][21][20][47]} The city of Shreveport is 188 miles (303 km) from Dallas,^[48] 98 miles (158 km) from Tyler,^[49] and 41 miles (66 km) from Marshall, Texas;^[50] 215 miles (346 km) from Little Rock and 73 miles (117 km) from Texarkana, Arkansas;^[51][52] and 250 miles (400 km) from the state capital of Baton Rouge,^[53] 99 miles (159 km) from Monroe,^[54] 69 miles (111 km) from Ruston,^[55] and 30 miles (48 km) from Minden, Louisiana.^[56] The city's proximity to the nearby cities makes it North Louisiana and the Ark-La-Tex's transportation hub.

Shreveport is the parish seat of Caddo Parish. Portions of the city extend into neighboring Bossier Parish, bordering Bossier City. Shreveport sits on a low elevation overlooking the Red River.^[57] Western and northern portions of Shreveport have an elevation over 253 feet (77 m) above sea level.^[58] Pine forests, cotton fields, wetlands, and waterways mark the outskirts of the city. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 123.396 square miles (319.59 km²), of which, 107.798 square miles (279.20 km²) is land and 15.548 square miles (40.27 km²) is water.^[59]

Shreveport—since the mid-1990s—has been a major gambling center with a modest downtown skyline. The "Streetscape" project, inspired by the coming of riverboat gaming, gave Shreveport's downtown traditional brick sidewalks, statues, sculptures, and mosaics. The O.K. Allen Bridge (Texas Street bridge) was lit with neon lights. Since then, Downtown Shreveport has seen minor changes until the 2010s; the whole of Shreveport has been improving roads since the mid-2010s, with continued road projects in 2018.^[60] In 2018, buildings in Shreveport's downtown and nearby districts were revitalized due to re-investment in the area.^[11][13] In 2020, plans were unveiled for the I-49 Connector and further redevelopment of the city.^[41]

Shreveport encompasses many areas, neighborhoods, and districts. The busiest thoroughfares and areas of Shreveport are the Youree Drive area (named for Peter Youree), the Shreveport Downtown Riverfront, and Highland neighborhood. All of the busiest areas are located in Eastern Shreveport, nearby or along the Red River. Below is a list of areas in the Shreveport area of Caddo Parish:

Shreveport has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa). Rainfall is abundant, with the normal annual precipitation averaging over 51 inches (1,300 mm), with monthly averages ranging from less than 3 inches (76 mm) in August to more than 5 inches (130 mm) in June. Severe thunderstorms with heavy rain, hail, damaging winds and tornadoes occur in the area during the spring and summer months. The winter months are normally mild, with an average of 35 days of freezing or below-freezing temperatures per year, with ice and sleet storms possible.

Summer months are hot and humid, with maximum temperatures exceeding 90 °F (32 °C) on an average of 91 days per year, with high to very high relative average humidity. The extreme temperatures range from −5 °F (−21 °C) on February 12, 1899,^[61] to 110 °F (43 °C) on August 18, 1909, and August 25 and 26, 2023.^[61] Shreveport is home to a branch of the National Weather Service which provides forecasts and warnings for the greater Ark-La-Tex region.

Historical population

Census	Pop.	Note	%±
1850	1,728		—
1860	2,190		26.7%
1870	4,607		110.4%
1880	8,009		73.8%
1890	11,979		49.6%
1900	16,013		33.7%
1910	28,015		75.0%
1920	43,874		56.6%
1930	76,655		74.7%
1940	98,167		28.1%
1950	127,206		29.6%
1960	164,372		29.2%
1970	182,064		10.8%
1980	206,989		13.7%
1990	198,525		−4.1%
2000	200,145		0.8%
2010	199,311		−0.4%
2020	187,593		−5.9%
2023 (est.)	177,959	[65]	−5.1%
U.S. Decennial Census[66] 2020 Census[6]

Shreveport's population was initially 1,728 at the 1850 U.S. census, and has experienced growth to a historic high of 206,989 at the 1980 census. According to the 2020 United States census, there were 187,593 people, 73,114 households, and 42,775 families residing in the city; the 2020 American Community Survey determined an estimated 189,890 people resided in the city, purporting a slight population rebound.^[67] The 2020 census estimates showed Shreveport had 75,680 households with an average of 2.4 people per household. Of the households, 39% were married-couple households, though 44% of its male population and 40% of its female population have never married.

Throughout the city, there were 89,523 housing units, with an 85% occupancy rate; among them, 54% were owner-occupied. Among its units, 73% were single-unit detached homes and 31% of its population moved into those homes from 2015 to 2016. The median value of its owner-occupied housing units were $151,700, and 30% of its units were estimated to be under $100,000; 38% of its units were estimated to cost from $100,000 to $200,000.^[67] From 2014 to 2018, the median value of an owner-occupied housing unit was $144,800. The median monthly cost with a mortgage was $1,178 and the median monthly cost without a mortgage was $364; the city of Shreveport had a median gross rent of $810.

The median income from 2014 to 2018 was $36,338, and the mean income was $55,582.^[68] The per capita income was $25,022. By the 2020 American Community Survey, its median household income increased to $40,809.^[69] The median income for families grew to $54,023 with a mean income of $82,854; married-couple families $84,282 with a mean of $112,363; and non-family households $26,628 with a mean of $41,090.^[70] According to census estimates, 25% of its population earned from $50,000 to $100,000 annually; 13% $100,000 to $200,000; and 5% over $200,000. Approximately 24.9% of Shreveport lived at or below the poverty line, down from 2014 to 2018's census estimates of 25.4%.^[71]

Shreveport city, Louisiana – Racial and ethnic composition
Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos may be of any race.

Race / Ethnicity (NH = Non-Hispanic)	Pop 2000[72]	Pop 2010[73]	Pop 2020[74]	% 2000	% 2010	% 2020
White alone (NH)	91,857	79,693	66,138	45.90%	39.98%	35.26%
Black or African American alone (NH)	101,218	108,535	104,612	50.57%	54.46%	55.77%
Native American or Alaska Native alone (NH)	568	652	573	0.28%	0.33%	0.31%
Asian alone (NH)	1,577	2,600	3,031	0.79%	1.30%	1.62%
Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander alone (NH)	58	89	102	0.03%	0.04%	0.05%
Other race alone (NH)	136	213	668	0.07%	0.11%	0.36%
Mixed race or Multiracial (NH)	1,625	2,511	5,811	0.81%	1.26%	3.10%
Hispanic or Latino (any race)	3,106	5,018	6,658	1.55%	2.52%	3.55%
Total	200,145	199,311	187,593	100.00%	100.00%	100.00%

In 2019, the racial and ethnic makeup of Shreveport was 56.9% Black and African American, 36.8% non-Hispanic white, 0.4% American Indian and Alaska Native, 1.7% Asian, 0.1% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, 0.1% some other race, 1.5% two or more races, and 2.6% Hispanic and Latino American of any race. At the 2010 U.S. census, the racial and ethnic composition of the population was 54.70% Black or African American, 41.16% White, 1.0% Native American, 2.0% Asian, 1.2% from some other race and 1.5% from two or more races. In 2010, about 6.5% of the population was Hispanic or Latino American of any race.^[75]

Reflecting the decline in North Louisiana's population,^[76] the city of Shreveport's racial and ethnic makeup among Hispanic and Latino Americans declined from 2010 yet rebounded from 2019's census estimates.^[77] At the 2020 census, Shreveport remained a predominantly Black and African American city, with 55.77% of the population identifying as such; non-Hispanic whites slightly declined to 35.26% and multiracial or Americans of another race increased to 3.45% of the population. Data from the 2020 United States census reflected growing trends of Hispanic and Latino, and Asian American population growth nationwide.^[78]

Christianity is the city and metropolitan area's dominant religion, being part of the Bible Belt. Its residents were predominantly Protestant through the nineteenth century, and today, Baptists form the majority of Christians in Shreveport, followed by Methodists and Roman Catholics.^[79] Many Baptist and Methodist churches are affiliated with evangelical Protestant denominations, though several are also affiliated with mainline Protestantism; among Baptists, the Southern Baptist Convention,^[80] National Baptist Convention (USA), National Baptist Convention of America, and Full Gospel Baptist Church Fellowship are the largest Baptist denominations in the city. The Progressive National Baptist Convention is the largest Progressive Baptist group in the area.^[81] Methodists are mainly affiliates of the African Methodist Episcopal Church or Christian Methodist Episcopal Church, though some also claimed affiliation to the mainline United Methodist Church.^[82] The Roman Catholic community is primarily served by the Roman Catholic Diocese of Shreveport.^[83]

Of note among its predominantly Baptist population, the First Baptist Church of Shreveport was once pastored by Monroe E. Dodd, founder of the former Dodd College for Girls.^[84] Former Governor Jimmie Davis, also a Shreveport city commissioner, taught history for a year under Dodd. Other historic large Baptist churches include Antioch Baptist, Galilee Missionary Baptist, Calvary Baptist, Broadmoor Baptist, Summer Grove Baptist, and Mount Canaan Missionary Baptist Church. Summer Grove Baptist Church was previously pastored by Wayne L. DuBose, a Baptist denominational officer.^[85] Mount Canaan was previously pastored by civil rights era icon Dr. Harry Blake,^[86][87] and Galilee was likewise pastored by Dr. E. Edward Jones, another civil rights icon.^[88]

Among its Methodist churches has been the large First Methodist Church, established in 1884. The current edifice dates to 1913. Among its former pastors were D. L. Dykes Jr. and John E. Fellers. During a severe thunderstorm in 2009, the fiberglass steeple of the church toppled and fell onto a passing car.^[89][90] It has since been replaced. A second prominent Methodist congregation is named for J. S. Noel Jr.^[91] The church was begun as a mission in 1906. In 2023, First United Methodist voted to leave the United Methodist Church.^[92]

The large Holy Trinity Catholic Church, located downtown, was founded in 1858; it served Irish and German immigrants as well as native-born residents. Five priests died of yellow fever in the 1873 epidemic. The current sanctuary in Romanesque revival style architecture dates to 1896.^[93] Particularly striking in size and architecture is St. Mark's Cathedral, an Episcopal Church congregation dating its establishment to the first religious service held in Shreveport in 1839.^[94] It became the see of the Episcopal Diocese of Western Louisiana in 1990.^[95]

In Shreveport's interdenominational and Pentecostal population, Shreveport Community Church (an evangelical church affiliated with Assemblies of God USA)^[96][97] owns and operates Evangel Christian Academy, a pre‑K through 12th grade private school. The church has produced a biblical musical, Songs of the Season, during the Christmas holidays for over 20 years.^[98][99]

The Eastern Orthodox Church has maintained a presence in Shreveport since the early 1900s.^[100] The oldest Orthodox church in the city is St. George Greek Orthodox Church of the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America, followed by St. Nicholas Orthodox Church (Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America),^[101] and the Holy Nativity of the Lord Church of the Orthodox Church in America.

The Jewish community of Shreveport dates to the organization of Congregation Har El in 1859, made up primarily of German Jewish immigrants in its early years. It developed as B'nai Zion Temple, today the city's Reform congregation, which built the city's largest synagogue. Agudath Achim, founded in 1905 as an Orthodox congregation of immigrants from Eastern Europe, is today a traditional Jewish synagogue. Shreveport, historically, has had a large and civic-minded Jewish community and has elected three Jewish mayors.^[102]

The Islamic community in Shreveport-Bossier constituted approximately 14% of Louisiana's total Muslim population in 2018.^[103] The majority of Shreveporter Muslims are Sunni, followed by the Nation of Islam and non-denominational Islam.

Shreveport was formerly a major player in United States oil business, and once hosted the Standard Oil of Louisiana offices, a branch of Standard Oil. The Louisiana branch was later absorbed by Standard Oil of New Jersey. Beginning in 1930, United Gas Corporation, the nation's busiest pipeline operator and massive integrated oil company, was headquartered in Shreveport. Pennzoil performed a hostile takeover in 1968, and forced a merger. In the 1980s, the oil and gas industry suffered a large economic downturn. This severely affected the regional economy, and many companies cut back jobs or went out of business, including a large retail shopping mall (South Park Mall) which closed in the late 1990s. Shreveport's economy entered a major economic recession, and many residents left the area.

At one time, Shreveport was home to numerous manufacturers, including Shreveport Operations, a General Motors plant that permanently closed in August 2012. The plant produced the Chevrolet Colorado, GMC Canyon, Hummer H3 series, and the Isuzu i-Series.^[104] In January 2013, the plant was leased from Caddo Parish by Elio Motors.^[105] However, Elio Motors never went into production at the Shreveport plant.

In addition to GM, other notable large companies that have had or still have Shreveport manufacturing/assembly or production facilities or operations include: General Electric (electric transformer production), Western Electric (payphone manufacturing, approximately 7,500 employees at its peak, changed ownership through the years but closed in 2001)^[106] Honeywell UOP, Libbey-Owens-Ford, Beaird-Poulan (the originator of and, for decades, the only manufacturer of the single-operator chainsaw in the world),^[107] Calumet Specialty Products Partners (originally United Gas Corporation's Atlas Processing Unit and then Pennzoil), and Frymaster, LLC (a subsidiary of The Manitowoc Company). Today, only Calumet Packaging and Honeywell UOP survive as a large manufacturing employer in Shreveport.

By 2017, manufacturing and other goods-producing (e.g. petrochemical refining) jobs accounted for just 5% of Shreveport occupations, compared to 8% for the nationwide percentage of the workforce involved in manufacturing.^[108][109]

Shreveport has since largely transitioned to a service economy. In particular, there has been rapid growth in the gaming industry. The city hosts various riverboat gambling casinos, and, before Hurricane Katrina in 2005, was second only to New Orleans in Louisiana tourism. Nearby Bossier City is home to one of the three horse racetracks in the state, Louisiana Downs. Casinos in Shreveport-Bossier include Sam's Town, Bally's, Horseshoe, Boomtown, and Margaritaville. Diamond Jacks Casino (formerly Isle of Capri) closed in 2020.^[110][111] The Shreveport-Bossier Convention and Tourist Bureau is the official tourism information agency for the region. The bureau maintains a comprehensive database of restaurants, accommodations, attractions, and events.

In May 2005, the Louisiana Boardwalk, a 550,000-square-foot (51,000 m²) shopping and entertainment complex, opened in Bossier City across from Shreveport's downtown. It features outlet shopping, several restaurants, a 14‑screen movie theater, a bowling complex, and Bass Pro Shops.

A 350,000-square-foot (33,000 m²) convention center was completed in the Shreveport Downtown Riverfront. Managed by SMG, it includes an 800-space parking garage. An adjoining Hilton Hotel opened in June 2007. It was constructed by and owned by the city, which has been a controversial issue, and the subject of discussions about use of public funds.

In November 2008, development of the Haynesville Shale area, with new jobs in the natural gas industry were expected to be created over the next few years. Residents in the region have been given large bonuses for signing mineral rights leases up to $25,000 per acre. However, economic downturn had resulted in a lower market price for natural gas and slower-than-expected drilling activity. The city expected to generate revenue by leasing the mineral rights on public lands in the near future as neighboring municipalities had already done. However, with advances in fracking methods in the Haynesville shale and starting in 2022 with the increase of natural gas prices after Covid to as high as $8/Mcf (thousand cubic feet), rig activity has greatly increased in the Haynesville to be the 2nd largest basin in the United States by number of active drilling rigs (2nd only to the Permian Basin - largest basin in the United States). It has since slowed to a degree since natural gas prices have decreased but is still the 3rd highest ranked basin in the US in terms of number of active drilling rigs.

Gambling and hotel industries in Shreveport, JPMorgan Chase, Capital One, and Regions Financial Corporation have regional offices in Shreveport's downtown and surrounding districts and neighborhoods. AT&T's regional headquarters is located in Downtown Shreveport. Amazon and Governor Edwards announced plans to open a fulfillment center in 2021.^[112][113]

Amazon began construction on the $200 million fulfillment center in 2021 with completion expected by the end of 2022. The fulfillment center was expected to create 1,000 direct jobs.^[114] Additionally, other business investments alongside Amazon during the early 2020s contributed more than $750 million to revitalizing and expanding the municipal and metropolitan economy.^[115] By October 2023, Amazon planned to open a second facility in Shreveport.^[116][117]

In December 2023, the city council approved a lease of Millennium Studios to rapper 50 Cent's new production company.^{[118][119][120][121]}

In 2014, the city government pumped $16.5 million into Mall St. Vincent in an attempt to attract new customers to the mall.^[122] However, by 2021, Auntie Anne's, Gymboree, Grimaldi's Pizzeria, and Sears had closed their Mall St. Vincent operations, leaving Dilliards as the only anchor store.^[123]

Fortune magazine ranked Shreveport the "#1 place to start a business" in 2015.^[124] In 2020, Advanced Aero Services planned to open a facility at Shreveport Regional Airport,^[15][14] while employer Libbey Glass closed its doors for good after 47 years of operation, resulting in the loss of 450 jobs.^[125] On July 31, 2020, the Shreveport Economic Recovery Task Force released a revitalization plan with a primary focus on the downtown area.^[41]

Tax incentives offered by the state government have given Louisiana the third largest film industry in the country, behind California and New York. Louisiana is sometimes called "Hollywood South".^[126] A number of films have been made in Shreveport. Facilities include sound stages, prop rental facilities, the Fairgrounds Complex, and the Louisiana Wave Studio, a computer-controlled outdoor wave pool.^[127]

Selected films shot in Shreveport include:

Several television series have been shot in Shreveport and the surrounding area, including The Gates (2010), and Salem (2014). The Louisiana Film Prize has spurred the creation of over 200 short films shot in Shreveport and Northwest Louisiana by filmmakers from around the world since its inception in 2012.

As of 2023, G-Unit Film and Television, which has recently undergone renovations, serves as the primary filming location for projects involving 50 Cent. Additionally, it also operates as the creative center for the entertainment and film industry within Northwest Louisiana and the Ark-La-Tex.^[128]

Shreveport is home to many theatres, museums, and performing arts groups, including:

Mardi Gras celebrations in Shreveport date to the mid‑19th century when krewes and parades were organized along the lines of those of New Orleans. Mardi Gras in Shreveport did not survive the cancellations caused by World War I. Attempts to revive it in the 1920s were unsuccessful, and the last Carnival celebrations in Shreveport for decades were held in 1927. Mardi Gras in Shreveport was revived beginning in 1984 with the organization of the Krewe of Apollo. The Krewes of Gemini, Centaur, Aesclepius, Highland, Sobek, Harambee, and others, followed during the next decade and a half. The first krewe^{[clarification needed]} to revive parading was Gemini in 1989. Today, Mardi Gras is again an important part of the cultural life of the Shreveport-Bossier metropolitan area.^[137]

Dating back to 1911, the state fairgrounds (and later Independence Stadium, formerly State Fair Stadium) has traditionally hosted a college football game or two during the State Fair of Louisiana, an event currently dubbed the Red River State Fair Classic. Since 1976, Independence Stadium has served as host of college football's annual Independence Bowl.^[138] Also, the Louisiana Tech Bulldogs football team occasionally hosts games at Independence Stadium.

Shreveport has been home to several professional football teams. The Houston franchise of the professional World Football League relocated to Shreveport rebranded as the Shreveport Steamer midway through the 1974 season, but the franchise along with the WFL folded midway through the 1975 season. Another franchise named the Shreveport Steamers played as a member of the American Football Association from 1979 until folding in 1981. Shreveport's Independence Stadium was also home to the Shreveport Pirates, an unsuccessful professional Canadian Football League franchise that opened play in 1994 but folded after the 1995 season.

Baseball in Shreveport has an extensive history. The city had affiliated Minor League Baseball teams from 1968 to 2002. The most memorable team was the Shreveport Captains of the Texas League. Baseball teams in Shreveport have gone through eight different name changes and seven different leagues all since 1895. Shreveport's most recent independent minor league baseball team, the Shreveport-Bossier Captains, ceased operations in 2011 and moved to Laredo, Texas.

The city also has an extensive history in basketball and soccer. The Shreveport Crawdads and Shreveport Storm operated in 1994 and 1995 as members of the Continental Basketball Association. The Shreveport-Bossier Mavericks of the American Basketball Association played from 2013 to 2015 before relocating to Owensboro, Kentucky; since 2021, the Mavericks returned as the Shreveport Mavericks within The Basketball League.^[139][140] The Shreveport/Bossier Lions played in 1998 as affiliates of the United Soccer League. NPSL-affiliate Shreveport Rafters FC operated from 2016 to 2018; their expansion team for the Women's Premier Soccer League operated for one season in 2017. Shreveport almost had a USL expansion team in 2020 before its rejection by the city council,^[141] though USL League Two announced the establishment of Blue Goose SC in 2022.^[142] The city was also considered as location for an NBA G League-affiliate of the New Orleans Pelicans. The city council unanimously rejected the proposal.^[143]

The Shreveport Mudbugs are a Tier II junior ice hockey team that has competed in the North American Hockey League since 2016.

On the collegiate front, the Centenary Gentlemen and Ladies compete in NCAA Division III as a member of the Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference. The LSU–Shreveport Pilots compete in the NAIA as a member of the Red River Athletic Conference.

Founded in 1836 and incorporated in 1839, Shreveport is the parish seat of Caddo Parish. It is part of the First Judicial District, housing the parish courthouse. It also houses the Louisiana Second Circuit Court of Appeal, which consists of nine elected judges representing twenty parishes in Northwest Louisiana. A portion of east Shreveport extends into Bossier Parish due to the changing course of the Red River.

The city of Shreveport has a mayor-council government. The elected municipal officials include the mayor, Tom Arceneaux, and seven members of the city council. Cedric Glover, a member of the Louisiana House of Representatives, was the first African American to hold the mayoral position.^[144][145] Under the mayor-council government, the mayor serves as the executive officer of the city. As the city's chief administrator and official representative, the mayor is responsible for the general management of the city and for seeing that all laws and ordinances are enforced.

According to the most recent FBI statistics, the total crime rate in Shreveport (as of 2022^[update]) is 5,722.4 per 100,000 people, or 143.92% higher than the national rate of 2,346.0 per 100,000 people and 62.39% higher than the Louisiana total crime rate of 3,523.8 per 100,000 people.^[146] The violent crime rate in Shreveport is 923.0 per 100,000 people, or 138.01% higher than the national rate of 387.8 per 100,000 people, and 44.35% higher than the Louisiana violent crime rate of 639.4 per 100,000 people.^[146]

Shreveport has one of the highest crime rates in America compared to all communities of all sizes. One's chance of becoming a victim of either violent or property crime is 1 in 15. Within Louisiana, more than 93% of the communities had a lower crime rate than Shreveport. NeighborhoodScout found Shreveport to be one of the top 100 most dangerous cities in the United States.^[147] Shreveport was the first city in Louisiana to have Crips and Blood gangs.^[148][149] In 1993, Shreveport hit a peak in murders, with 86 killings. Most of the killings were drug- or gang-related homicides.^[150] In 2017, Shreveport was placed 18th on 24/7 Wall St.'s list of "America's 25 Murder Capitals."^[151] Shreveport's crime rate was 71% higher than the Louisiana average. The crime rate was also 149% higher than the national average.^[152]

The city had a so-called "saggy pants" law since 2007.^[153] The city ordinance was repealed by the city council in June 2019.^[154]

Caddo Public Schools is a school district based in Shreveport.^[155] The district serves all of Caddo Parish, including the parish's sections of Shreveport.^[156] Its founding superintendent was Clifton Ellis Byrd, a Virginia native, who assumed the chief administrative position in 1907 and continued until his death in 1926. C. E. Byrd High School, which was established in 1925 on Line Avenue at the intersection with Kings Highway, bears his name. There are a number of private schools in the city as well, including Loyola College Prep, a coeducational high school founded in 1902 as the all-male St. John's High School.

Portions of Shreveport in Bossier Parish are instead within the Bossier Parish School District.^[157]

Shreveport has several colleges, including the Methodist-affiliated Centenary College (founded at Jackson, Louisiana, in 1825; relocated to Shreveport in 1908) and Louisiana State University in Shreveport, which opened as a two-year institution in 1967; it became a four-year institution in 1976. Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center Shreveport, the only medical school in Northern Louisiana, opened in 1969. Shreveport also has one of the largest nursing schools in northern Louisiana, the Northwestern State University College of Nursing.

Louisiana Tech University at Shreveport-Bossier City was launched in 2012 offering their Executive MBA and main campus undergraduate and graduate degree programs at the university's Shreveport Center.^[158] Southern University at Shreveport (SUSLA) offers a two-year associate's degree program. Founded in 1973, Louisiana Baptist University and Theological Seminary is also located in Shreveport, at 6301 Westport Avenue.

Both Caddo and Bossier parishes are in the areas of Bossier Parish Community College and Northwest Louisiana Technical Community College.^[159]

Ayers Career College is a Shreveport-based college that offers career training in the medical and HVAC fields.^[160] Since July 2007, Shreveport is home to a local Remington College campus. This location offers both diploma and degree programs, and is active in the Shreveport community.^[161] Virginia College opened in 2012. Located in Shreveport-Bossier City, it offers career training in areas such as business and office, health and medical, and medical billing.^[162]

Shreveport and its surrounding area are served by a variety of local newspapers, magazines, television stations and radio stations. The major daily newspaper serving the area is The Shreveport Times, owned by USA Today parent Gannett. The newspaper's former rival, the afternoon Shreveport Journal, ceased publication in 1991. Other major newspapers include The Shreveport Sun, Caddo Citizen, and SB Magazine. The Shreveport Sun is the area's primary African American newspaper.^[163]

Across the Red River, Shreveport's sister city of Bossier City is served by the daily Bossier Press-Tribune. The Barksdale Warrior is the weekly newspaper of record for the Barksdale Air Force Base. Alternative publications include The Forum Newsweekly, City Lights, The Inquisitor and The Shreveport Catalyst. Twice annually, North Louisiana History, the journal of the North Louisiana Historical Association, is published in Shreveport.

Shreveport and Bossier City are primarily served by two major cable television and internet companies: Shreveport is served by Comcast and Bossier City is served by Suddenlink.

Shreveport's past reflects the need for mass transit and public roads. As far back as the 1870s, residents used mule-drawn street cars that were converted to electric motorized cars by 1890. Commuter rail systems in Shreveport flourished for many decades, and rail car lines extended out to rural areas. In 1930 trolleys and rail cars began to be replaced by buses, although motor buses did not finally replace all trolley service until the 1960s. In the 1960s, the Interstate Highway System came to the area with the construction of Interstate 20.

The local public transportation provider, SporTran, provides moderately extensive bus service throughout Shreveport and Bossier City. Sportran operates seven days a week on seventeen bus routes (five night routes) from 6:00 a.m. to 1:00 am, with no night service on Sunday. The highway system has a cross-hair and loop freeway structure similar to that of Texas cities like Houston and Dallas. The loop consists of the Outer Loop Freeway Interstate 220 on the north and the Inner Loop Freeway, Louisiana Highway 3132, on the south, forming approximately an 8-mile-diameter (13 km) semi-loop around downtown. Another loop is formed by the Bert Kouns Industrial Loop (Louisiana Highway 526) and circles further south, crossing Interstate 49. I-49 now extends north to Interstate 30 in Arkansas, though there is a gap in I-49 within Shreveport.

Shreveport lies along the route of the proposed Interstate 69 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) superhighway that will link Canada, the U.S. industrial Midwest, Texas, and Mexico.

Shreveport is served by two airports. The larger is Shreveport Regional Airport (SHV), established in 1952, and is served by Allegiant Air, American Airlines, Delta Air Lines, and United Airlines (as United Express). The smaller airport, Shreveport Downtown Airport (DTN), was built in 1931 and is located north of the Downtown Business District along the Red River. It is currently a general aviation and reliever airport, but was originally Shreveport's commercial airport.

The Shreveport Waterworks Museum contains the Shreveport Railroad Museum, commemorating area railroad history.^[164]

The city had been served until the 1960s by several passenger railroads, at different stations.

• Central Station at 1025 Marshall Street served the Louisiana and Arkansas Railroad
• Texas & Pacific Station at 104 Market Street served the Texas and Pacific Railway. Its last trains were unnamed successors to the Louisiana Eagle (Fort Worth-New Orleans) and the Louisiana Daylight. (El Paso-New Orleans)^[165][166]
• Union Station on Louisiana Avenue at Lake Street had the Illinois Central (the Southwestern Limited / Northeastern Limited -Shreveport-Meridian, MS), Kansas City Southern Railway (the Southern Belle -Kansas City-New Orleans), St. Louis Southwestern Railway (the Lone Star -Dallas-Memphis) and the Southern Pacific.^[165]

Barksdale Air Force Base is located in Bossier Parish across the river from Shreveport, which annexed and donated the land for its construction in the 1920s. Named for pioneer army aviator Lt. Eugene Hoy Barksdale and originally called Barksdale Army Air Field, it opened in 1933 and became Barksdale Air Force Base in 1947. Headquartered here are the Air Force Global Strike Command, 8th Air Force, 2d Bomb Wing, and 307th Wing. The primary aircraft housed here is the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress. In earlier years, the base was the home to other famous aircraft, including the B-47 Stratojet.

Shreveport is home to the two 108th Cavalry Squadrons, the reconnaissance element of the 256th Infantry Brigade. Three of the squadron's four cavalry troops are located at 400 East Stoner Avenue in a historic armory known as "Fort Humbug". It got the name due to the Confederate Army burning logs to look like cannons and placing them along the Red River. This caused Union ironclad ships sailing north on the Red River to be tricked into turning back south.^[167]

• Houston E. & W. T. Ry. Co. v. United States, a landmark U.S. Supreme Court commerce clause ruling commonly known as "The Shreveport Rate Cases"
• Mighty Haag Circus
• List of U.S. cities with large Black populations
• USS Shreveport

• City of Shreveport official website
• National Weather Service Shreveport office
• Shreveport-Bossier Convention & Tourist Bureau
• Shreveport/Bossier webpage
• Shreveport Times newspaper
• www.Shreveport.com
• Past train stations of Shreveport

 

Lawyer

Helena Normanton in English court dress, c. 1950[a]
Occupation
Names	Attorney, advocate, barrister, counsel, counselor, solicitor, legal executive
Activity sectors	Law, business
Description
Competencies	Analytical skills Critical thinking Law Legal research Legal writing Legal ethics
Education required	Professional requirements
Fields of employment	Courts, government, law firms, NGOs, legal aid, corporations
Related jobs	Barrister, solicitor, legislator, judge, jurist, advocate, attorney, legal executive, prosecutor, law clerk, law professor, civil law notary, magistrate, politician, paralegal

A lawyer is a person who is qualified to offer advice about the law, draft legal documents, or represent individuals in legal matters.

The exact nature of a lawyer's work varies depending on the legal jurisdiction and the legal system, as well as the lawyer's area of practice. In many jurisdictions, the legal profession is divided into various branches — including barristers, solicitors, conveyancers, notaries, canon lawyer — who perform different tasks related to the law.^[1]

Historically, the role of lawyers can be traced back to ancient civilizations such as Greece and Rome. In modern times, the practice of law includes activities such as representing clients in criminal or civil court, advising on business transactions, protecting intellectual property, and ensuring compliance with laws and regulations.

Depending on the country, the education required to become a lawyer can range from completing an undergraduate law degree to undergoing postgraduate education and professional training. In many jurisdictions, passing a bar examination is also necessary before one can practice law.

Working as a lawyer generally involves the practical application of abstract legal theories and knowledge to solve specific problems. Some lawyers also work primarily in upholding the rule of law, human rights, and the interests of the legal profession.^[2][3]

Some jurisdictions have multiple types of lawyers, while others only have two or one.

England, the mother of the common law jurisdictions, emerged from the Middle Ages with a complexity in its legal professions similar to that of civil law jurisdictions, but then evolved by the 19th century to a single division between barristers and solicitors.^[4][5]

Several countries that originally had two or more legal professions have since fused or united their professions into a single type of lawyer.^[6][7][8][9] Most countries in this category are common law countries, though France, a civil law country, merged its jurists in 1990 and 1991 in response to Anglo-American competition.^[10] In countries with fused professions, a lawyer is usually permitted to carry out all or nearly all the responsibilities listed below.

In some jurisdictions descended from the English common law tradition, including England and Wales, there are often two kinds of lawyers. A barrister (also known as an advocate or counselor) is a lawyer who typically specializes in arguing before courts, particularly in higher courts. A solicitor (or attorney) is a lawyer who prepares cases and gives advice on legal subjects. In some jurisdictions, solicitors also represent people in court. Fused professions, where lawyers have rights of both barristers and solicitors, have emerged in other former English common law jurisdictions, such as the United States, India, and Pakistan.^[11][12]

Civil law jurisdictions do not have "lawyers" in the American sense, insofar as that term is used in American English to refer to a single unified type of general-purpose legal services provider.^[13] Rather, their legal professions consist of a large number of different kinds of legally-trained persons, known as jurists, some of whom are advocates who are licensed to practice in the courts.^[14][15][16] In some civil law countries, a similar distinction to the common law tradition exists between advocates and procurators.^[17][18][19]

In the United States, Sri Lanka, and the Philippines, the preferred term for one practising law, "attorney at law", or "attorney-at-law", usually is abbreviated in everyday speech to "attorney". This term has its roots in the verb to attorn, meaning to transfer one's rights and obligations to another. South Africa only applies this term for certain practitioners.

Because each country has traditionally had its own method of dividing up legal work among its legal professionals, it has been difficult to formulate accurate generalizations that cover all the countries with multiple legal professions.^[20] Other kinds of legal practitioners include:

• Patent attorneys
• Trademark attorneys
• Conveyancers
• Notaries^[21][22]
• Scriveners^[21][22]
• Legal executives

While some jurisdictions regulate the use of the title "lawyer", others do not.^[11][23][24]

Historically, lawyers in most European countries were addressed with the title of doctor. The first university degrees, starting with the law school of the University of Bologna in the 11th century, were all law degrees and doctorates.^[25] Therefore, in many southern European countries, including Portugal, Italy, and Malta, lawyers have traditionally been addressed as "doctor", a practice that was transferred to many countries in South America and Macau. In some jurisdictions, the term "doctor" has since fallen into disuse, but it is still in use in many countries within and outside of Europe.^[26][27]

The title of doctor has traditionally not been used to address lawyers in England or other common law countries. Until 1846, lawyers in England were trained by apprenticeship or in the Inns of Court, with no undergraduate degree being required.^[28] Although the most common law degree in the United States is the Juris Doctor,^[29] most J.D. holders in the United States do not use the title "doctor".^[30] It is, however, common for lawyers in the United States to use the honorific suffix "Esq." (for "Esquire").

In French (France, Quebec, Belgium, Luxembourg, French-speaking area of Switzerland) and Dutch-speaking countries (Netherlands, Belgium), legal professionals are addressed as Maître ..., abbreviated to M^e ... (in French) or Meester ..., abbreviated to mr. ... (in Dutch). In Poland, the title Mecenas is used to refer to advocates and attorneys at law,^[31] although as an informal title its status is not protected by law.^[32][33]

In South Africa and India, lawyers who have been admitted to the bar may use the title "Advocate", abbreviated to "Adv" in written correspondence. Lawyers who have completed two years of clerkship with a principal Attorney and passed all four board exams may be admitted as an "Attorney". Likewise, Italian law graduates who have qualified for the bar use the title "Avvocato", abbreviated in "Avv."

Some lawyers, particularly barristers and advocates, argue the legal cases of clients case before a judge or jury in a court of law.^[34][35]

In some jurisdictions, there are specialist lawyers who have exclusive rights of audience before a court.^[36] In others, particularly fused legal jurisdictions, there are lawyers who specialize in courtroom advocacy but who do not have a legal monopoly over the profession.

In some countries, litigants have the option of arguing on their own behalf.^[37] In other countries, like Venezuela, no one may appear before a judge unless represented by a lawyer.^[38] The advantage of the latter regime is that lawyers are familiar with the court's customs and procedures, making the legal system more efficient for all involved. Unrepresented parties often damage their own credibility or slow the court down as a result of their inexperience.^[39][40]

Often, lawyers brief a court in writing on the issues in a case before the issues can be orally argued. They may have to perform extensive research into relevant facts. Also, they draft legal papers and prepare for an oral argument.

In split common law jurisdictions, the usual division of labor is that a solicitor will obtain the facts of the case from the client and then brief a barrister, usually in writing.^[41] The barrister then researches and drafts the necessary court pleadings, which will be filed and served by the solicitor, and orally argues the case.^[42]

In Spanish civil law, the procurator merely signs and presents the papers to the court, but it is the advocate who drafts the papers and argues the case.^[43] In other civil law jurisdictions, like Japan, a scrivener or clerk may fill out court forms and draft simple papers for laypersons who cannot afford or do not need attorneys, and advise them on how to manage and argue their own cases.^[44]

In most developed countries, the legislature has granted original jurisdiction over highly technical matters to executive branch administrative agencies which oversee such things. As a result, some lawyers have become specialists in administrative law. In a few countries, there is a special category of jurists with a monopoly over this form of advocacy; for example, France formerly had conseils juridiques (who were merged into the main legal profession in 1991).^[45] In other countries, like the United States, lawyers have been effectively barred by statute from certain types of administrative hearings in order to preserve their informality.^[46]

In some fused common law jurisdictions, the client-lawyer relationship begins with an intake interview where the lawyer gets to know the client personally, following which the lawyer discovers the facts of the client's case, clarifies what the client wants to accomplish, and shapes the client's expectations as to what actually can be accomplished. The second to last step begins to develop various claims or defenses for the client. Lastly, the lawyer explains her or his fees to the client.^[47][48]

In England, only solicitors were traditionally in direct contact with the client,^{[49][needs update]} but barristers nowadays may apply for rights to liaise with clients directly. The solicitor retained a barrister if one was necessary and acted as an intermediary between the barrister and the client.^[50] In most cases barristers were obliged, under what is known as the "cab rank rule", to accept instructions for a case in an area in which they held themselves out as practicing, at a court at which they normally appeared and at their usual rates.^[51][52]

Legal advice is the application of abstract principles of law to the concrete facts of the client's case to advise the client about what they should do next. In some jurisdictions, only a properly licensed lawyer may provide legal advice to clients for good consideration, even if no lawsuit is contemplated or is in progress.^[53][54][55] In these jurisdictions, even conveyancers and corporate in-house counsel must first get a license to practice, though they may actually spend very little of their careers in court. Some jurisdictions have made the violation of such a rule the crime of unauthorized practice of law.^[56]

In other countries, jurists who hold law degrees are allowed to provide legal advice to individuals or to corporations, and it is irrelevant if they lack a license and cannot appear in court.^[57][58] Some countries go further; in England and Wales, there is no general prohibition on the giving of legal advice.^[59] Singapore does not have any admission requirements for in-house counsel.^[60] Sometimes civil law notaries are allowed to give legal advice, as in Belgium.^[61]

In many countries, non-jurist accountants may provide what is technically legal advice in tax and accounting matters.^[62]

In virtually all countries, patents, trademarks, industrial designs and other forms of intellectual property must be formally registered with a government agency in order to receive maximum protection under the law. The division of such work among lawyers, licensed non-lawyer jurists/agents, and ordinary clerks or scriveners varies greatly from one country to the next.^[44][63]

In some countries, the negotiating and drafting of contracts is considered to be similar to the provision of legal advice, so that it is subject to the licensing requirement explained above.^[64] In others, jurists or notaries may negotiate or draft contracts.^[65]

Conveyancing is the drafting of the documents necessary for the transfer of real property, such as deeds and mortgages. In some jurisdictions, all real estate transactions must be carried out by a lawyer.^[66] Historically, conveyancing accounted for about half of English solicitors' income, though this has since changed,^[67] and a 1978 study showed that conveyancing "accounts for as much as 80 percent of solicitor-client contact in New South Wales."^[68] In most common law jurisdictions outside of the United States, this monopoly arose from an 1804 law^[69] that was introduced by William Pitt the Younger as a quid pro quo for the raising of fees on the certification of legal professionals such as barristers, solicitors, attorneys, and notaries.^[70]

In others, the use of a lawyer is optional and banks, title companies, or realtors may be used instead.^[71] In some civil law jurisdictions, real estate transactions are handled by civil law notaries.^[72] In England and Wales, a special class of legal professionals–the licensed conveyancer–is also allowed to carry out conveyancing services for reward.^[73]

In many countries, only lawyers have the legal authority to draft wills, trusts, and any other documents that ensure the efficient disposition of a person's property after death. In some civil law countries, this responsibility is handled by civil law notaries.^[65]

In many civil law countries, prosecutors are trained and employed as part of the judiciary. They are law-trained jurists, but may not necessarily be lawyers in the sense that the word is used in the common law world.^[74] In common law countries, prosecutors are usually lawyers holding regular licenses who work for the government office that files criminal charges against suspects. Criminal defense lawyers specialize in the defense of those charged with any crimes.^[75]

The educational prerequisites for becoming a lawyer vary greatly across countries. In some countries, law is an undergraduate degree culminating in a bachelors or master's degree in law. In some of these jurisdictions, it is common or even required for students to earn another bachelor's degree at the same time.^[76][77] Where law is taught as an undergraduate degree, legal training after law school may comprise advanced examinations, apprenticeships, and additional coursework at special government institutes. For example, in many English common law jurisdictions, individuals with a law degree have to undergo further education and professional training before qualifying as a lawyer, such as the Bar Professional Training Course.^[78]

In other jurisdictions, particularly the United States and Canada, law is taught at the graduate level following the completion of an unrelated bachelor's degree.^[79][80] In America, the Americans Bar Association decides which law schools to approve for the purposes of admission to the bar.^[81] Law schools in the United States and Canada award graduating students a J.D. (Juris Doctor) as a professional degree.^[82] In a handful of U.S. states, one may become an attorney (a so-called country lawyer) by simply "reading law" and passing the bar examination, without having to attend law school first, although very few people actually become lawyers that way.^[83]

The methods and quality of legal education vary widely. Some countries require extensive clinical training in the form of apprenticeships or special clinical courses.^[84] Others, like Venezuela, do not.^[85] A few countries prefer to teach through assigned readings of judicial opinions (the casebook method) followed by intense in-class cross-examination by the professor (the Socratic method).^[86][87] Many others focus on theoretical aspects of law, leaving the professional and practical training of lawyers to apprenticeship and employment contexts.^[88][89][90]

Some countries, particularly industrialized ones, have a traditional preference for full-time law programs,^[91] while in developing countries, students often work full- or part-time to pay the tuition and fees of their part-time law programs.^[92][93] Law schools in developing countries share several common problems, such as an over reliance on practicing judges and lawyers who treat teaching as a part-time commitment, a concomitant scarcity of full-time law professors),^[94][95] incompetent faculty with underqualified credentials,^[96] and textbooks that lag behind the current state of the law.^[94][97]

Some jurisdictions grant a "diploma privilege" to certain institutions, so that merely earning a degree or credential from those institutions is the primary qualification for practicing law.^[98] Mexico allows anyone with a law degree to practice law.^[99] However, in a large number of countries, a law student must pass a bar examination (or a series of such examinations) before receiving a license to practice.^{[98][100][101]} Some countries require a formal apprenticeship with an experienced practitioner, while others do not.^[102] A few jurisdictions still allow an apprenticeship in place of any kind of formal legal education, though the number of persons who actually become lawyers that way is increasingly rare.^[103] Lawyer occupational licensing was found to increase legal costs.^[104]

The career structure of lawyers varies widely from one country to the next.

In most common law countries, especially those with fused professions, lawyers have many options over the course of their careers. Besides private practice, they can become a prosecutor, government counsel, corporate in-house counsel, administrative law judge, judge, arbitrator, or law professor.^[105] There are also many non-legal jobs for which legal training is good preparation, such as politician, corporate executive, government administrator, investment banker, entrepreneur, or journalist.^[106] In developing countries like India, a large majority of law students never actually practice, but simply use their law degree as a foundation for careers in other fields.^[107]

In most civil law countries, lawyers generally structure their legal education around their chosen specialty; the boundaries between different types of lawyers are carefully defined and hard to cross.^[108] After one earns a law degree, career mobility may be severely constrained.^[109] For example, unlike their Anglo-American counterparts,^[110] it is difficult for German judges to leave the bench and become advocates in private practice.^[111] Another interesting example is France, where for much of the 20th century, all judiciary officials were graduates of an elite professional school for judges.^[112]

In a few civil law countries, such as Sweden,^[113] the legal profession is not rigorously bifurcated and everyone within it can easily change roles and arenas.

In many countries, lawyers are general practitioners who represent clients in a broad field of legal matters.^[114] In others, there has been a tendency since the start of the 20th century for lawyers to specialize early in their careers.^[115][116] In countries where specialization is prevalent, many lawyers specialize in representing one side in one particular area of the law; thus, it is common in the United States to hear of plaintiffs' personal injury attorneys.^[117][118]

Lawyers in private practice generally work in specialized businesses known as law firms,^[119] with the exception of English barristers. The vast majority of law firms worldwide are small businesses that range in size from 1 to 10 lawyers.^[120] The United States,^[121] United Kingdom and Australia are exceptions, home to several firms with more than 1,000 lawyers after a wave of mergers in the late 1990s.

Notably, barristers in England, Wales, Ireland, Northern Ireland and some states in Australia do not work in law firms. Those who offer their services to members of the general public—as opposed to those working in-house — are generally self-employed.^[122] Most work in groupings known as "sets" or "chambers", where some administrative and marketing costs are shared. An important effect of this different organizational structure is that there is no conflict of interest where barristers in the same chambers work for opposing sides in a case, and in some specialized chambers this is commonplace.

Some large businesses employ their own legal staff in a legal department.^[123] Other organizations buy in legal services from outside companies.^[124]

In some jurisdictions, either the judiciary^[125] or the Ministry of Justice^[126] directly supervises the admission, licensing, and regulation of lawyers.

Other jurisdictions, by statute, tradition, or court order, have granted such powers to a professional association which all lawyers must belong to.^[127] In the U.S., such associations are known as mandatory, integrated, or unified bar associations. In the Commonwealth of Nations, similar organizations are known as Inns of Court, bar councils or law societies.^[128] In civil law countries, comparable organizations are known as Orders of Advocates,^[129] Chambers of Advocates,^[130] Colleges of Advocates,^[131] Faculties of Advocates,^[132] or similar names. Generally, a nonmember caught practicing law may be liable for the crime of unauthorized practice of law.^[133]

In common law countries with divided legal professions, barristers traditionally belong to the bar council (or an Inn of Court) and solicitors belong to the law society. In the English-speaking world, the largest mandatory professional association of lawyers is the State Bar of California, with 230,000 members.

Some countries admit and regulate lawyers at the national level, so that a lawyer, once licensed, can argue cases in any court in the land. This can be seen in countries including New Zealand, Japan, and Belgium.^[134] Others, especially those with federal governments, tend to regulate lawyers at the state or provincial level; this is the case in the United States,^[135] Canada,^[136] Australia,^[137] and Switzerland,^[138] to name a few. Brazil is the most well-known federal government that regulates lawyers at the national level.^[139]

Some countries, like Italy, regulate lawyers at the regional level,^[140] and a few, like Belgium, even regulate them at the local level (that is, they are licensed and regulated by the local equivalent of bar associations but can advocate in courts nationwide).^[141] In Germany, lawyers are admitted to regional bars and may appear for clients before all courts nationwide with the exception of the Federal Court of Justice of Germany (Bundesgerichtshof or BGH).^[142]

Generally, geographic limitations can be troublesome for a lawyer who discovers that his client's cause requires him to litigate in a court beyond the normal geographic scope of his license. Although most courts have special pro hac vice rules for such occasions, the lawyer will still have to deal with a different set of professional responsibility rules, as well as the possibility of other differences in substantive and procedural law.

Some countries grant licenses to non-resident lawyers, who may then appear regularly on behalf of foreign clients. Others require all lawyers to live in the jurisdiction or to even hold national citizenship as a prerequisite for receiving a license to practice. But the trend in industrialized countries since the 1970s has been to abolish citizenship and residency restrictions. For example, the Supreme Court of Canada struck down a citizenship requirement on equality rights grounds in 1989,^[143] and similarly, American citizenship and residency requirements were struck down as unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1973 and 1985, respectively.^[144] The European Court of Justice made similar decisions in 1974 and 1977 striking down citizenship restrictions in Belgium and France.^[145]

Voluntary lawyer associations may exist at all geographic levels from the provincial to the global.^[99][146] Some associations are termed voluntary bar associations.^[147] In some countries, lawyers have also formed trade unions.^[148]

A key difference among countries is whether lawyers should be regulated solely by an independent judiciary and its subordinate institutions (a self-regulating legal profession),^[149] or whether lawyers should be subject to supervision by the Ministry of Justice in the executive branch.

In most civil law countries, the government has traditionally exercised tight control over the legal profession in order to ensure a steady supply of loyal judges and bureaucrats. That is, lawyers were expected first and foremost to serve the state, and the availability of counsel for private litigants was an afterthought.^[150] Even in civil law countries like Norway which have partially self-regulating professions, the Ministry of Justice is the sole issuer of licenses, and makes its own independent re-evaluation of a lawyer's fitness to practice after a lawyer has been expelled from the Advocates' Association.^[126] Brazil is an unusual exception in that its national Order of Advocates has become a fully self-regulating institution with direct control over licensing and has successfully resisted government attempts to place it under the control of the Ministry of Labor.^[151][152]

Of all the civil law countries, communist countries historically went the farthest towards total state control, with all communist lawyers forced to practice in collectives by the mid-1950s.^[153][154] China is a prime example: technically, the People's Republic of China did not have lawyers, and instead had only poorly trained, state-employed "legal workers" prior to the enactment of a comprehensive reform package in 1996 by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress.^[155]

In contrast, common law lawyers have traditionally regulated themselves through institutions where the influence of non-lawyers, if any, was weak and indirect, despite nominal state control.^[156] Such institutions have been traditionally dominated by private practitioners who opposed strong state control of the profession on the grounds that it would endanger the ability of lawyers to zealously and competently advocate their clients' causes in the adversarial system of justice.^[157] However, the concept of the self-regulating profession has been criticized as a sham which serves to legitimize the professional monopoly while protecting the profession from public scrutiny.^[158] In some jurisdictions, mechanisms have been astonishingly ineffective, and penalties have been light or nonexistent.^{[159][160][161]}

Hostility towards the legal profession is a widespread phenomenon. For example, William Shakespeare famously wrote, "The first thing we do, let's kill all the lawyers" in Henry VI, Part 2, Act IV, Scene 2. The legal profession was abolished in Prussia in 1780 and in France in 1789, though both countries eventually realized that their judicial systems could not function efficiently without lawyers.^[162] Complaints about too many lawyers were common in both England and the United States in the 1840s,^[163][164] Germany in the 1910s,^[165] and in Australia,^[166] Canada,^[167] the United States,^{[168][169][170]} and Scotland^[171] in the 1980s.

Public distrust of lawyers reached record heights in the United States after the Watergate scandal.^[170][172] In the aftermath of Watergate, legal self-help books became popular among those who wished to solve their legal problems without having to deal with lawyers.^[173] Lawyer jokes also soared in popularity in English-speaking North America as a result of Watergate.^[174]

In Adventures in Law and Justice, legal researcher Bryan Horrigan dedicated a chapter to "Myths, Fictions, and Realities" about law and illustrated the perennial criticism of lawyers as "amoral [...] guns for hire"^[175] with a quote from Ambrose Bierce's satirical The Devil's Dictionary that summarized the noun as: "LAWYER, n. One skilled in circumvention of the law."^[176]

More generally, in Legal Ethics: A Comparative Study, law professor Geoffrey C. Hazard, Jr. with Angelo Dondi briefly examined the "regulations attempting to suppress lawyer misconduct" and noted that their similarity around the world was paralleled by a "remarkable consistency" in certain "persistent grievances" about lawyers that transcends both time and locale, from the Bible to medieval England to dynastic China.^[177] The authors then generalized these common complaints about lawyers as being classified into five "general categories" as follows:

• abuse of litigation in various ways, including using dilatory tactics and false evidence and making frivolous arguments to the courts
• preparation of false documentation, such as false deeds, contracts, or wills
• deceiving clients and other persons and misappropriating property
• procrastination in dealings with clients
• charging excessive fees.^[178]

Some studies have shown that suicide rates among lawyers in certain jurisdictions may be as much as six times higher than the average population, and commentators suggest that the low opinion the public has of lawyers, combined with their own high ideals of justice, which in practice they may see denied, increase the depression rates of those in this profession.^[179][180] Additionally, lawyers are twice as likely to suffer from addiction to alcohol and other drugs.^[181]

In the United States, lawyers typically earn between $100,000 and $220,000 per year, although earnings vary by age, experience, and practice setting.^{[182][183][184][185][186]}

Lawyers are paid for their work in a variety of ways. In private practice, they may work for an hourly fee according to a billable hour structure,^[187] a contingency fee,^[188] or a lump sum payment. Normally, most lawyers negotiate a written fee agreement up front and may require a non-refundable retainer in advance. Recent studies suggest that when lawyers charge a fixed fee rather than billing by the hour, they work less hard on behalf of clients, and clients get worse outcomes.^[189][190] In many countries there are fee-shifting arrangements by which the loser must pay the winner's fees and costs; the United States is the major exception,^[191] although in turn, its legislators have carved out many exceptions to the so-called "American Rule" of no fee shifting.

Lawyers working directly on the payroll of governments, nonprofits, and corporations usually earn a regular annual salary.^[192] In many countries, lawyers can also volunteer their labor in the service of worthy causes through an arrangement called pro bono (short for pro bono publico, "for the common good").^[193] Traditionally such work was performed on behalf of the poor, but in some countries it has now expanded to many other causes such as environmental law.

In some countries, there are legal aid lawyers who specialize in providing legal services to the indigent.^[194][195] France and Spain even have formal fee structures by which lawyers are compensated by the government for legal aid cases on a per-case basis.^[196] A similar system, though not as extensive or generous, operates in Australia, Canada, and South Africa.^[197]

In other countries, legal aid specialists are practically nonexistent. This may be because non-lawyers are allowed to provide such services; in both Italy and Belgium, trade unions and political parties provide what can be characterized as legal aid services. Some legal aid in Belgium is also provided by young lawyer apprentices subsidized by local bar associations (known as the pro deo system), as well as consumer protection nonprofit organizations and Public Assistance Agencies subsidized by local governments.^[198] In Germany, mandatory fee structures have enabled widespread implementation of affordable legal expense insurance.^[199]

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The earliest people who could be described as "lawyers" were probably the orators of ancient Athens. However, Athenian orators faced serious structural obstacles. First, there was a rule that individuals were supposed to plead their own cases, which was soon bypassed by the increasing tendency of individuals to ask a "friend" for assistance.^[200] However, around the middle of the fourth century, the Athenians disposed of the perfunctory request for a friend.^[201] Second, a more serious obstacle, which the Athenian orators never completely overcame, was the rule that no one could take a fee to plead the cause of another. This law was widely disregarded in practice, but was never abolished, which meant that orators could never present themselves as legal professionals or experts.^[202] They had to uphold the legal fiction that they were merely an ordinary citizen generously helping out a friend for free, and thus they could never organize into a real profession.^[203] If one narrows the definition of lawyers to people who could practice the legal profession openly and legally, then the first lawyers would be the orators of ancient Rome.^[204]

A law enacted in 204 BC barred Roman advocates from taking fees, but the law was widely ignored.^[205] The ban on fees was abolished by Emperor Claudius, who legalized advocacy as a profession and allowed the Roman advocates to become the first lawyers who could practice openly—but he also imposed a fee ceiling of 10,000 sesterces.^[206] This was apparently not much money; the Satires of Juvenal complained that there was no money in working as an advocate.^[207]

Like their Greek contemporaries, early Roman advocates were trained in rhetoric, not law, and the judges before whom they argued were also not legally trained.^[208] But very early on, unlike Athens, Rome developed a class of specialists who were learned in the law, known as jurisconsults (iuris consulti).^[209] Jurisconsults were wealthy amateurs who dabbled in law as an intellectual hobby; they did not make their primary living from it.^[209] They gave legal opinions (responsa) on legal issues to all comers (a practice known as publice respondere).^[210] Roman judges and governors would routinely consult with an advisory panel of jurisconsults before rendering a decision, and advocates and ordinary people also went to jurisconsults for legal opinions.^[209] The Romans were the first to have a class of people who spent their days thinking about legal problems, and this is why their law developed in a systematic and technical way.^[209]

During the Roman Republic and the early Roman Empire, jurisconsults and advocates were unregulated, since the former were amateurs and the latter were technically illegal.^[211] Any citizen could call himself an advocate or a legal expert, though whether people believed him would depend upon his personal reputation. This changed once Claudius legalized the legal profession. By the start of the Byzantine Empire, the legal profession had become well-established, heavily regulated, and highly stratified.^[212] The centralization and bureaucratization of the profession was apparently gradual at first, but accelerated during the reign of Emperor Hadrian.^[213] At the same time, the jurisconsults went into decline during the imperial period.^[214]

By the fourth century, advocates had to be enrolled on the bar of a court to argue before it, they could only be attached to one court at a time, and there were restrictions on how many advocates could be enrolled at a particular court.^[215] By the 380s, advocates were studying law in addition to rhetoric, thus reducing the need for a separate class of jurisconsults; in 460, Emperor Leo imposed a requirement that new advocates seeking admission had to produce testimonials from their teachers; and by the sixth century, a regular course of legal study lasting about four years was required for admission.^[216] Claudius's fee ceiling lasted all the way into the Byzantine period, though by then it was measured at 100 solidi.^[217] It was widely evaded, either through demands for maintenance and expenses or a sub rosa barter transaction.^[217] The latter was cause for disbarment.^[217]

The notaries (tabelliones) appeared in the late Roman Empire. Like their modern-day descendants, the civil law notaries, they were responsible for drafting wills, conveyances, and contracts.^[218] They were ubiquitous and most villages had one.^[218] In Roman times, notaries were widely considered to be inferior to advocates and jury consults.

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the onset of the Early Middle Ages, the legal profession of Western Europe collapsed. As James Brundage has explained: "[by 1140], no one in Western Europe could properly be described as a professional lawyer or a professional canonist in anything like the modern sense of the term 'professional.' "^[219] However, from 1150 (when Decretum Gratiani was compiled) onward, a small but increasing number of men became experts in canon law but only in furtherance of other occupational goals, such as serving the Catholic Church as priests.^[220] From 1190 to 1230, however, there was a crucial shift in which some men began to practice canon law as a lifelong profession in itself.^[221]

The legal profession's return was marked by the renewed efforts of church and state to regulate it. In 1231, two French councils mandated that lawyers had to swear an oath of admission before practicing before the bishop's courts in their regions, and a similar oath was promulgated by the papal legate in London in 1237.^[222] During the same decade, the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Frederick II, the king of the Kingdom of Sicily, imposed a similar oath in his civil courts.^[223] By 1250, the nucleus of a new legal profession had clearly formed.^[224] The new trend towards professionalization culminated in a controversial proposal at the Second Council of Lyon in 1275 that all ecclesiastical courts should require an oath of admission.^[225] Although not adopted by the council, it was highly influential in many such courts throughout Europe.^[225] The civil courts in England also joined the trend towards professionalization; in 1275 a statute was enacted that prescribed punishment for professional lawyers guilty of deceit,^[226] and in 1280 the mayor's court of the city of London promulgated regulations concerning admission procedures, including the administering of an oath.^[227] And in 1345, the French crown promulgated a royal ordinance which set forth 24 rules governing advocates, of which 12 were integrated into the oath to be taken by them.^[228]

The French medieval oaths were widely influential and of enduring importance; for example, they directly influenced the structure of the advocates' oath adopted by the Canton of Geneva in 1816.^[229][230] In turn, the 1816 Geneva oath served as the inspiration for the attorney's oath drafted by David Dudley Field as Section 511 of the proposed New York Code of Civil Procedure of 1848, which was the first attempt in the United States at a comprehensive statement of a lawyer's professional duties.^[229]