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Vertical Garden Landscaping San Diego Upward Growth

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Landscaping San Diego

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Understanding the San Diego Landscape

San Diego's Unique Climate

Understanding the San Diego landscape begins with an appreciation of its unique climate. Butterfly Garden Landscaping San Diego Naturers Party Zone . Known for its Mediterranean-like weather, San Diego experiences mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers. This climatic condition significantly influences the types of plants that can thrive in this region.

The Indigenous Flora

Native plants play a pivotal role in the San Diego landscape. These include the Coast Live Oak, Toyon, Lemonade Berry, and California Sagebrush. Using native plants in landscaping not only supports local biodiversity but also proves more water-efficient - a critical consideration given San Diego’s semi-arid climate.

Water Conservation Efforts

Water conservation is a crucial factor shaping landscaping choices in San Diego. Drought-tolerant plants such as succulents and cacti are popular options for residential and commercial properties alike. Incorporating xeriscaping techniques - designing landscapes to minimize water use - is another common practice.

Influence of Spanish Architecture

San Diego's landscape is also influenced by its rich cultural history, particularly Spanish architecture. Landscapes often feature vibrant tiles, ornate fountains, and courtyard gardens reminiscent of traditional Spanish homes. This aesthetic lends itself beautifully to the city’s sun-drenched setting while preserving its historical roots.

Essential Factors to Consider in San Diego Landscaping

When planning a landscaping project in San Diego, it's vital to consider several key factors.

Climate and Native Plants

First and foremost, San Diego's unique climate plays a significant role in dictating what plants will thrive. The region is known for its Mediterranean-like weather, characterized by mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers. Therefore, choosing native or drought-tolerant plants can help ensure the success of your landscape design as these species are adapted to the local conditions.

Water Conservation

Another crucial aspect is water conservation. Given California's frequent droughts, implementing water-efficient solutions such as drip irrigation systems or xeriscaping – landscaping with slow-growing, drought-tolerant plants to conserve water – could be beneficial.

Soil Type

Lastly, understanding the type of soil in your yard is essential since different plants require different soil conditions to flourish. Whether you have sandy or clay soil will influence plant selection and care practices like watering and fertilizing schedules.

Choosing the Right Plants for San Diego Climate

Understanding San Diego's Climate

San Diego, known for its Mediterranean climate, offers warm, dry summers and mild winters. With more than 200 days of sunshine a year and average temperatures ranging from 57 to 72 degrees Fahrenheit, it creates a unique environment for plant growth. Selecting the right plants for such a climate requires understanding their needs and adaptability.

Native Plants

When landscaping in San Diego, consider utilizing native plants. These species have evolved over time to thrive in the local climate and soil conditions. They're generally more drought-resistant and require less maintenance compared to non-native plants. Some popular choices include Toyon, Coast Live Oak, and California Poppy.

Drought-Tolerant Plants

Given that San Diego experiences periods of drought due to its Mediterranean climate, incorporating drought-tolerant plants is essential. Succulents like Agave, Aloe Vera and Cacti are excellent choices as they store water in their leaves or roots which helps them survive dry spells. These also add texture and depth to your landscape design.

Maintaining Your Landscape

Finally, maintaining your landscape is crucial regardless of the plant types you choose. Regular watering (considering restrictions during drought), pruning at appropriate times and applying fertilizers can greatly enhance plant health. Additionally, mulching can help retain moisture in the soil while suppressing weed growth.

Importance of Drought-Tolerant Landscaping in San Diego

San Diego's Mediterranean climate, with its dry summers and minimal rainfall, makes drought-tolerant landscaping a necessity. This type of landscaping not only preserves the natural beauty of the area but also conserves water resources.

Water Conservation

Drought-tolerant landscaping significantly reduces water usage. Plants that are native to San Diego or other arid climates require less water than traditional greenery, helping to conserve this precious resource in an area where it is often scarce.

Economic Benefit

By implementing drought-tolerant landscapes, homeowners and businesses can significantly reduce their water bills. The cost savings can be substantial over time, especially considering San Diego's high water rates.

Maintaining Local Biodiversity

Choosing plants that are native to the region helps maintain local biodiversity. These species have evolved to thrive in San Diego’s specific climatic conditions and support local wildlife such as birds and insects – playing a crucial role in preserving the area’s ecosystem.

Reducing Maintenance Effort

Drought-tolerant plants typically require less maintenance than their more thirsty counterparts. They need less pruning, fertilizing, and pest control - making them an ideal choice for busy homeowners or those who prefer a low-maintenance garden.

Aesthetic Appeal

Finally, drought-tolerant landscaping doesn't mean sacrificing aesthetics. With proper planning and design, these landscapes can be just as beautiful as traditional ones - offering a unique appeal with their variety of textures, colors, and shapes that reflect the beauty of our natural environment.

Top Landscaping Styles for San Diego Homes

California Native Landscaping

One of the top landscaping styles in San Diego is California native landscaping. Embracing the natural flora and fauna of the region, this style minimizes water usage while enhancing local biodiversity. Homeowners often choose plants like manzanita, toyon, and sage for their hardiness and natural beauty.

Mediterranean Style

San Diego's climate lends itself well to Mediterranean-style landscaping. This design emphasizes drought-tolerant plants such as lavender, rosemary, and olive trees paired with stone pathways or terracotta tiles. The result is a garden that exudes an Old World charm while being environmentally friendly.

Xeriscaping

As water conservation continues to be a significant concern in San Diego, xeriscaping has become increasingly popular among homeowners. This style incorporates drought-resistant plants and efficient irrigation systems to reduce water use drastically. Succulents are frequently used in xeriscapes due to their low-maintenance nature.

Tropical Oasis

Despite its arid climate, many San Diego homeowners opt for a tropical oasis look in their landscapes. By using plants like palms, birds of paradise, and hibiscus coupled with elements like water features or tiki torches, these gardens can transport guests directly into a beachside paradise without leaving home.

The Role of Native Plants in San Diego Landscaping

Native plants play a crucial role in landscape design in San Diego. They not only add aesthetic appeal but also contribute to the local ecosystem. As these plants are adapted to the region's climate and soil conditions, they require less water and maintenance than non-native species. This makes them an eco-friendly choice for homeowners who wish to conserve resources while enhancing their landscapes. Furthermore, native plants attract local wildlife such as birds and butterflies, thereby promoting biodiversity. The use of native plants like the California Poppy, Manzanita, or Toyon can add a sense of place and authenticity to San Diego landscapes.

Benefits of Using Native Plants in Landscaping

Incorporating Hardscape Elements in Your San Diego Garden

Importance of Hardscape Elements

In the context of landscaping in San Diego, hardscape elements serve an essential purpose. These non-living features including patios, walkways, and retaining walls can significantly enhance the aesthetic appeal of your garden while also providing functional benefits. They can help define different areas within the garden and create a sense of structure. Moreover, due to San Diego's climatic conditions, these elements are often more sustainable and require less maintenance than their softer counterparts.

Selecting Appropriate Hardscape Elements

Selecting suitable hardscape elements for your San Diego garden involves considering factors such as local weather patterns and soil type. You'll need materials that can withstand the city's warm climate and occasional dry spells. Natural stones or concrete are commonly used due to their durability and versatility in design applications. Including water features like fountains or ponds not only adds beauty but also introduces a cooling effect during hotter months.

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Finally, remember to balance these hard elements with softscaping to maintain an inviting outdoor space.

Sustainable Gardening Practices for San Diego Landscapes

Drought-Tolerant Plants

In San Diego's semi-arid climate, sustainable landscaping often means choosing drought-tolerant plants. Native species such as Manzanita or Coast Live Oak are not only adapted to local conditions but also provide habitat for native wildlife.

Water Conservation

Water conservation is a critical aspect of sustainable gardening in San Diego. Techniques such as drip irrigation, rainwater harvesting, and the use of mulch can significantly reduce water usage while still maintaining a lush and vibrant landscape.

Composting

Composting household waste provides nutrient-rich soil for your garden while reducing the amount of waste that goes to the landfill. This practice not only enriches your garden but also reduces your carbon footprint.

Eco-friendly Pest Control

Sustainable gardening also involves eco-friendly pest control measures. Instead of resorting to harsh chemical pesticides, consider using biological controls like beneficial insects or homemade organic sprays.

Edible Landscaping

Finally, edible landscaping is a wonderful way to make your garden more sustainable. Planting fruit trees, vegetables, and herbs not only provides fresh produce but also reduces the 'food miles' associated with transported goods.

How to Choose a Professional Landscaper in San Diego

Identifying Your Landscaping Needs

Before you can choose a professional landscaper in San Diego, it's crucial to identify your specific landscaping needs. Think about the type of work you want done - whether it's simple lawn maintenance or a complete redesign of your outdoor space. Consider aspects such as the size of your property, your budget, and the timeframe for completion. Having a clear idea of what you need will help you narrow down potential candidates and ensure that they have the necessary skills and experience.

Evaluating Potential Landscapers

Once you've identified your needs, it's time to evaluate potential landscapers in San Diego. Look at their portfolios to see examples of their previous work and determine if their style matches what you're looking for. Research their reputation online through reviews or testimonials from previous clients. It's also important to check if they are licensed and insured according to California state regulations. You should also consider meeting with them personally to discuss your project and gauge their professionalism, creativity, and communication skills before making a decision.

Case Study: Successful Landscaping Projects in San Diego

Highlighting Success in San Diego Landscaping

San Diego, renowned for its diverse flora and sunshine-filled days, has consistently been a fertile ground for exceptional landscaping projects. One notable success story is the transformation of a barren residential property into a lush Mediterranean-inspired garden. Guided by an expert landscaping team, native plants were strategically placed to conserve water while maintaining visual appeal. Drip irrigation systems were installed and hardscapes designed to complement the natural environment seamlessly. Another remarkable project tackled the challenge of an urban commercial space, transforming it into a green oasis filled with sustainable plant life and innovative water features. These projects exemplify how San Diego’s unique climate can be leveraged to create stunning outdoor spaces that champion ecological responsibility alongside aesthetic beauty.

Maintaining Your Landscape in Different Seasons of San Diego

Spring and Summer Landscape Maintenance

In San Diego, spring and summer are the best times to focus on planting and fertilizing. The region experiences mild weather during these seasons, making it ideal for plants to grow. Regular watering is essential since the climate can be dry. In addition, regular trimming of shrubs and trees is also necessary to maintain a healthy landscape.

Fall Landscape Maintenance

Fall in San Diego brings cooler temperatures and less rainfall. It's an optimal time to prepare your landscape for winter by trimming trees and shrubs, cleaning up fallen leaves, and applying mulch. This season also provides a window of opportunity for overseeing any areas of grass that may have been damaged during the hot summer months.

Winter Landscape Maintenance

San Diego winters are mild compared to other regions, but landscapes still require attention during this season. Watering needs decrease due to lower evaporation rates; however, one should be mindful of any frost as it can damage certain plant species. Regular inspections should be done to assess plant health, looking out especially for pests or diseases that can take advantage during this dormant period.

Top Public Gardens and Parks as Inspiration for Your Landscape Design

Balboa Park

Balboa Park, with its diverse collection of landscapes, gardens, and architectural structures, provides a rich source of inspiration for your own landscape design. The park's Alcazar Garden, modeled after the gardens in Spain's Alhambra Palace, is a stunning example of geometric landscaping that could be reflected in a sophisticated backyard or courtyard.

Japanese Friendship Garden

The Japanese Friendship Garden provides ideas for those seeking tranquility and simplicity in their home landscapes. This park showcases traditional Japanese garden aesthetics like koi ponds, stone paths, and meticulously pruned trees. Incorporating elements from this serene space can create an oasis of calm in your own yard.

San Diego Botanic Garden

With its vast array of plant species from around the world, the San Diego Botanic Garden offers inspiration for those interested in creating a varied and vibrant garden. Its numerous themed gardens - including tropical rainforest, desert garden, and native plants areas - present many options for choosing suitable plants for your San Diego landscape.

Sunset Cliffs Natural Park

If you're looking to incorporate natural elements into your landscaping design, Sunset Cliffs Natural Park serves as an excellent inspiration with its sprawling grassy areas overlooking Pacific Ocean views. The park's seamless blend of open grassland with rugged coastal features could inspire an open plan layout that embraces the beauty of San Diego's unique coastal environment.

Mission Trails Regional Park

Mission Trails Regional Park is perfect for those who want to reflect San Diego's wilder side in their landscaping designs. With its rugged hillsides covered in chaparral and sagebrush contrasted by peaceful valleys dotted with sycamore trees and wildflowers, it provides plenty of ideas on how to utilize native vegetation to create a sustainable yet striking landscape.

Popular Trees and Shrubs for a Stunning Southern California Landscape

Trees for Southern California Landscape

In the sun-soaked city of San Diego, certain trees have proven to be popular among landscapers for their adaptability and appeal. The Coast Live Oak, an evergreen tree native to California, provides generous shade with its broad canopy and is admired for its resilience. The Coral tree, another favorite, creates a stunning spectacle with its vibrant red flowers that bloom in late winter or early spring. For those looking for year-round greenery, the Blue Palo Verde is a great choice. This desert native exhibits a beautiful display of bright yellow flowers in the spring.

Shrubs for Southern California Landscape

Shrubs are integral to any SoCal landscape design due to their versatility and low maintenance requirements. Among them, Lavender is a common pick; it's not only visually pleasing with its purple blooms but also aromatic which adds another dimension to your garden. Manzanita shrubs offer a unique aesthetic with their twisted branches and small bell-shaped flowers - they're also drought-tolerant which makes them ideal for the dry climate. Equally impressive are Sage shrubs; characterized by their grey-green foliage and brilliantly colored flowers, they attract hummingbirds and bees making your garden a lively ecosystem.

Creating Wildlife-Friendly Gardens: The New Trend in San Diego Landscaping

The Trend

In the realm of San Diego landscaping, a new trend is burgeoning: creating wildlife-friendly gardens. This change in approach reflects a growing awareness of the importance of sustaining local fauna and flora, as well as the desire for more natural and environmentally friendly landscapes.

Integration of Native Plants

A key aspect of these wildlife-friendly landscapes involves integrating native plants into garden designs. These plants have coexisted with local wildlife for generations and provide them with a familiar habitat, food sources, and materials for nest-building. Utilizing indigenous vegetation also contributes to water conservation — an essential consideration given San Diego's arid climate.

Inclusion of Water Features

Another component central to this landscaping trend is the inclusion of water features. Ponds or birdbaths not only add an aesthetic appeal but also serve as hydration spots for birds, insects, and small mammals. The sound of running water can also attract a variety of species adding to the biodiversity within your yard.

Use Of Organic Practices

The practice of creating wildlife-friendly gardens in San Diego goes hand-in-hand with organic gardening practices. Avoiding chemical pesticides and fertilizers helps protect visiting creatures from harm and keeps soil healthy for plant growth. Composting is another favored method that adds nutrient-rich organic matter to the soil while reducing waste.

Benefit To Homeowners

For homeowners, this landscaping trend offers multiple benefits beyond aesthetics. A well-designed wildlife-friendly garden brings life into what might otherwise be static spaces while contributing positively towards local ecosystems. Plus, it allows residents to engage with nature on a personal level without leaving their property.

Utilizing Vertical Spaces: Unique Ideas for Small Yard Landscaping

In the bustling city of San Diego, homeowners often face the challenge of landscaping smaller yards.

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One innovative solution is to utilize vertical spaces. Vertical gardens, also known as living walls, are a trendy and space-efficient way to incorporate greenery. They involve growing plants on a vertically suspended panel, which can be either freestanding or attached to a wall. Another idea is to use tiered planters or shelves for potted plants, allowing you to display a variety of species without taking up much ground space. Trellises can also be used for climbing plants like vines or roses, adding height and interest to your yard. For those who prefer something low maintenance, hanging baskets or wall-mounted pots are perfect choices. Not only do these techniques maximize space, but they also add an artistic touch that transforms your small yard into an urban oasis in the heart of San Diego.

Irrigation Systems: Best Practices for Water Conservation

Choosing the Right Irrigation System

For landscaping in San Diego, choosing an efficient irrigation system is crucial. Drip irrigation systems are recommended for their water-saving capabilities. They deliver water directly to the plant's roots, reducing evaporation and runoff.

Smart Water Controllers

Using smart controllers can further enhance water conservation. These devices regulate watering based on local weather conditions and soil moisture levels, ensuring plants get only the water they need.

Maintaining Your Irrigation System

Regular maintenance of your irrigation system is key to conserving water. Check for leaks regularly, adjust sprinklers to avoid watering sidewalks or driveways, and replace broken parts promptly.

Native Plant Landscaping

Incorporating native San Diego plants into your landscape design can also save water as these species are adapted to local climate conditions and typically require less supplemental watering than non-native species.

Watering Schedule

Finally, set a sensible watering schedule. Early morning or late evening watering reduces evaporation rates. In cooler months, reduce the frequency of watering schedules as plants require less water.

Fire-Resistant Landscaping: A Must-Have In Dry Climates Like San Diego

Understanding Fire-Resistant Landscaping

Fire-resistant landscaping, also known as firescaping, is a method of designing and arranging plants to minimize the risk of fire spreading. In dry climates like San Diego, where wildfires are common, this type of landscaping becomes essential. It involves choosing fire-resistant plants and carefully planning out the landscape to create defensible spaces against wildfires.

The Importance in San Diego

San Diego has a Mediterranean climate with hot, dry summers and mild winters - conditions that are conducive to frequent wildfires. With its dense vegetation, the region faces high risks during wildfire season. Hence, adopting fire-resistant landscaping not only protects individual homes but also contributes to overall wildfire mitigation efforts in the community.

Choosing Fire-Resistant Plants

The right choice of plants plays a crucial role in fire-resistant landscaping. Some plants are naturally more resistant to fire due to their high moisture content or low oil or resin content. For instance, succulents make an excellent choice for San Diego homes due to their high water retention capacity.

Designing Defensible Spaces

Creating defensible spaces is another vital aspect of fire-resistant landscaping. This involves arranging your landscape into zones based on distance from your home - each zone having different landscaping requirements aimed at slowing down or stopping the spread of wildfire.

Maintenance Practices

Regular maintenance is key in ensuring that your landscape remains fire-resistant year-round.

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This includes regularly removing dead plants and overgrown vegetation, properly spacing trees and shrubs, maintaining irrigation systems, and promptly removing fallen leaves and other debris which can act as fuel for fires.

Xeriscaping: A Water-Saving Approach to Home Gardening in Southern California

Understanding Xeriscaping

Xeriscaping is an innovative landscaping method that utilizes drought-tolerant plants and efficient irrigation systems to conserve water. This approach is particularly beneficial for homeowners in San Diego, a region of Southern California where water scarcity is a common issue. Xeriscaping not only aids in preserving the environment but it also reduces maintenance efforts and costs.

Benefits of Xeriscaping

Adopting xeriscape principles can bring about significant advantages for homeowners in San Diego. Firstly, it leads to substantial water savings as the plants used require minimal watering. Secondly, these landscapes are low-maintenance, eliminating the need for regular pruning or mowing. Lastly, with a rich variety of indigenous and drought-tolerant species available, xeriscaped gardens can be just as vibrant and appealing as traditional ones.

Xeriscape Implementation in San Diego

With its Mediterranean-like climate, San Diego makes an ideal location for xeriscape gardening. Local nurseries offer an array of native plants such as Sagebrush Butterweed and California Fuchsia which thrive with minimal water usage. Several landscaping companies specialize in creating beautiful xeriscape designs that are tailored to each homeowner's preferences while maximizing ecological benefits.

19.Tips on Budgeting For Your Garden Remodel Project

Planning Your Garden Remodel

In the scenic city of San Diego, a well-designed garden can significantly enhance your property's appeal. When embarking on a garden remodel project, it is essential to plan your budget carefully. Begin by identifying your landscaping goals and the necessary elements to achieve them such as plants, hardscape materials, irrigation system or outdoor furniture. Research the costs involved in purchasing these items and hiring professional landscapers if necessary. It may be beneficial to consult with local San Diego landscapers for accurate estimates.

Saving Costs and Maximising Resources

To save costs during your garden remodeling project in San Diego, consider using native plants that require less water and maintenance. You can also recycle or repurpose existing materials like wood planks or stones for new structures or paths. Timing also plays a crucial role in budgeting - buying plants off-season can lead to substantial savings. Lastly, investing in quality materials might cost more upfront but will save you from frequent replacements in the long run. Remember that a beautiful garden increases not just your home’s aesthetic value but its monetary worth as well.

20.Tropical vs Desert Themed Backyard Designs : What's More Popular In The Region?

San Diego's Landscaping Preferences

The landscaping preference in San Diego is influenced by its unique climate and geographical location. Being a coastal city with an arid environment, homeowners often find themselves torn between tropical and desert-themed backyard designs.

Tropical Themed Backyards

Tropical themed backyards are popular among residents who prefer a lush, green oasis that mimics the feel of a beach paradise. These designs typically include plants like palm trees, ferns, and orchids to create an exotic ambiance. The addition of water features like ponds or waterfalls enhances the tropical feel.

Desert Themed Backyards

On the other hand, desert-themed backyards resonate more with the natural environment of San Diego. They feature drought-tolerant plants such as cacti and succulents, along with rocks and sand for an authentic desert look. This design also has the advantage of being low-maintenance and environmentally friendly due to less water usage.

Popularity in The Region

While both themes have their admirers, current trends suggest that desert-themed backyards are gaining popularity over tropical designs. This could be attributed to increasing awareness about water conservation amidst California’s recurring drought conditions.

The Final Verdict

Ultimately, the choice between a tropical or desert-themed backyard depends on personal preferences and lifestyle considerations. However, given San Diego's arid climate and growing ecological consciousness, it seems that more homeowners are leaning towards sustainable desert landscaping options.

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Landscape ecology is the scientific research of examining and improving partnerships between eco-friendly procedures in the atmosphere and certain communities. This is done within a variety of landscape scales, growth spatial patterns, and business degrees of research study and plan. Landscape ecology can be called the scientific research of "landscape variety" as the synergetic outcome of biodiversity and geodiversity. As an extremely interdisciplinary field in systems scientific research, landscape ecology incorporates biophysical and logical techniques with humanistic and alternative perspectives throughout the natural sciences and social sciences. Landscapes are spatially heterogeneous geographic areas identified by varied engaging patches or ecosystems, ranging from fairly all-natural terrestrial and water systems such as woodlands, meadows, and lakes to human-dominated settings including agricultural and metropolitan settings. The most prominent characteristics of landscape ecology are its focus on the relationship among pattern, process and scales, and its focus on broad-scale eco-friendly and environmental issues. These require the combining in between biophysical and socioeconomic scientific researches. Secret research study subjects in landscape ecology consist of eco-friendly circulations in landscape mosaics, land use and land cover change, scaling, connecting landscape pattern evaluation with environmental procedures, and landscape preservation and sustainability. Landscape ecology also researches the function of human effect on landscape variety in the growth and dispersing of new human microorganisms that might trigger epidemics.

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Land cover surrounding Madison, Wisconsin. Fields are colored yellow and brown and urban surfaces are colored red.
Impervious surfaces surrounding Madison, Wisconsin
Canopy cover surrounding Madison, Wisconsin

Landscape ecology is the science of studying and improving relationships between ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems. This is done within a variety of landscape scales, development spatial patterns, and organizational levels of research and policy.[1][2][3] Landscape ecology can be described as the science of "landscape diversity" as the synergetic result of biodiversity and geodiversity.[4]

As a highly interdisciplinary field in systems science, landscape ecology integrates biophysical and analytical approaches with humanistic and holistic perspectives across the natural sciences and social sciences. Landscapes are spatially heterogeneous geographic areas characterized by diverse interacting patches or ecosystems, ranging from relatively natural terrestrial and aquatic systems such as forests, grasslands, and lakes to human-dominated environments including agricultural and urban settings.[2][5][6]

The most salient characteristics of landscape ecology are its emphasis on the relationship among pattern, process and scales, and its focus on broad-scale ecological and environmental issues. These necessitate the coupling between biophysical and socioeconomic sciences. Key research topics in landscape ecology include ecological flows in landscape mosaics, land use and land cover change, scaling, relating landscape pattern analysis with ecological processes, and landscape conservation and sustainability.[7] Landscape ecology also studies the role of human impacts on landscape diversity in the development and spreading of new human pathogens that could trigger epidemics.[8][9]

Terminology

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The German term Landschaftsökologie – thus landscape ecology – was coined by German geographer Carl Troll in 1939.[10] He developed this terminology and many early concepts of landscape ecology as part of his early work, which consisted of applying aerial photograph interpretation to studies of interactions between environment and vegetation.

Explanation

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Heterogeneity is the measure of how parts of a landscape differ from one another. Landscape ecology looks at how this spatial structure affects organism abundance at the landscape level, as well as the behavior and functioning of the landscape as a whole. This includes studying the influence of pattern, or the internal order of a landscape, on process, or the continuous operation of functions of organisms.[11] Landscape ecology also includes geomorphology as applied to the design and architecture of landscapes.[12] Geomorphology is the study of how geological formations are responsible for the structure of a landscape.

History

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Evolution of theory

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One central landscape ecology theory originated from MacArthur & Wilson's The Theory of Island Biogeography. This work considered the biodiversity on islands as the result of competing forces of colonization from a mainland stock and stochastic extinction. The concepts of island biogeography were generalized from physical islands to abstract patches of habitat by Levins' metapopulation model (which can be applied e.g. to forest islands in the agricultural landscape[13]). This generalization spurred the growth of landscape ecology by providing conservation biologists a new tool to assess how habitat fragmentation affects population viability. Recent growth of landscape ecology owes much to the development of geographic information systems (GIS)[14] and the availability of large-extent habitat data (e.g. remotely sensed datasets).

Development as a discipline

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Landscape ecology developed in Europe from historical planning on human-dominated landscapes. Concepts from general ecology theory were integrated in North America.[when?] While general ecology theory and its sub-disciplines focused on the study of more homogenous, discrete community units organized in a hierarchical structure (typically as ecosystems, populations, species, and communities), landscape ecology built upon heterogeneity in space and time. It frequently included human-caused landscape changes in theory and application of concepts.[15]

By 1980, landscape ecology was a discrete, established discipline. It was marked by the organization of the International Association for Landscape Ecology (IALE) in 1982. Landmark book publications defined the scope and goals of the discipline, including Naveh and Lieberman[16] and Forman and Godron.[17][18] Forman[6] wrote that although study of "the ecology of spatial configuration at the human scale" was barely a decade old, there was strong potential for theory development and application of the conceptual framework.

Today, theory and application of landscape ecology continues to develop through a need for innovative applications in a changing landscape and environment. Landscape ecology relies on advanced technologies such as remote sensing, GIS, and models. There has been associated development of powerful quantitative methods to examine the interactions of patterns and processes.[5] An example would be determining the amount of carbon present in the soil based on landform over a landscape, derived from GIS maps, vegetation types, and rainfall data for a region. Remote sensing work has been used to extend landscape ecology to the field of predictive vegetation mapping, for instance by Janet Franklin.

Definitions/conceptions of landscape ecology

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Nowadays, at least six different conceptions of landscape ecology can be identified: one group tending toward the more disciplinary concept of ecology (subdiscipline of biology; in conceptions 2, 3, and 4) and another group—characterized by the interdisciplinary study of relations between human societies and their environment—inclined toward the integrated view of geography (in conceptions 1, 5, and 6):[19]

  1. Interdisciplinary analysis of subjectively defined landscape units (e.g. Neef School[20][21]): Landscapes are defined in terms of uniformity in land use. Landscape ecology explores the landscape's natural potential in terms of functional utility for human societies. To analyse this potential, it is necessary to draw on several natural sciences.
  2. Topological ecology at the landscape scale[22][23] 'Landscape' is defined as a heterogeneous land area composed of a cluster of interacting ecosystems (woods, meadows, marshes, villages, etc.) that is repeated in similar form throughout. It is explicitly stated that landscapes are areas at a kilometres wide human scale of perception, modification, etc. Landscape ecology describes and explains the landscapes' characteristic patterns of ecosystems and investigates the flux of energy, mineral nutrients, and species among their component ecosystems, providing important knowledge for addressing land-use issues.
  3. Organism-centered, multi-scale topological ecology (e.g. John A. Wiens[24][25]): Explicitly rejecting views expounded by Troll, Zonneveld, Naveh, Forman & Godron, etc., landscape and landscape ecology are defined independently of human perceptions, interests, and modifications of nature. 'Landscape' is defined – regardless of scale – as the 'template' on which spatial patterns influence ecological processes. Not humans, but rather the respective species being studied is the point of reference for what constitutes a landscape.
  4. Topological ecology at the landscape level of biological organisation (e.g. Urban et al.[26]): On the basis of ecological hierarchy theory, it is presupposed that nature is working at multiple scales and has different levels of organisation which are part of a rate-structured, nested hierarchy. Specifically, it is claimed that, above the ecosystem level, a landscape level exists which is generated and identifiable by high interaction intensity between ecosystems, a specific interaction frequency and, typically, a corresponding spatial scale. Landscape ecology is defined as ecology that focuses on the influence exerted by spatial and temporal patterns on the organisation of, and interaction among, functionally integrated multispecies ecosystems.
  5. Analysis of social-ecological systems using the natural and social sciences and humanities (e.g. Leser;[27] Naveh;[28][29] Zonneveld[30]): Landscape ecology is defined as an interdisciplinary super-science that explores the relationship between human societies and their specific environment, making use of not only various natural sciences, but also social sciences and humanities. This conception is grounded in the assumption that social systems are linked to their specific ambient ecological system in such a way that both systems together form a co-evolutionary, self-organising unity called 'landscape'. Societies' cultural, social and economic dimensions are regarded as an integral part of the global ecological hierarchy, and landscapes are claimed to be the manifest systems of the 'total human ecosystem' (Naveh) which encompasses both the physical ('geospheric') and mental ('noospheric') spheres.
  6. Ecology guided by cultural meanings of lifeworldly landscapes (frequently pursued in practice[31] but not defined, but see, e.g., Hard;[32] Trepl[19]): Landscape ecology is defined as ecology that is guided by an external aim, namely, to maintain and develop lifeworldly landscapes. It provides the ecological knowledge necessary to achieve these goals. It investigates how to sustain and develop those populations and ecosystems which (i) are the material 'vehicles' of lifeworldly, aesthetic and symbolic landscapes and, at the same time, (ii) meet societies' functional requirements, including provisioning, regulating, and supporting ecosystem services. Thus landscape ecology is concerned mainly with the populations and ecosystems which have resulted from traditional, regionally specific forms of land use.

Relationship to ecological theory

[edit]

Some research programmes of landscape ecology theory, namely those standing in the European tradition, may be slightly outside of the "classical and preferred domain of scientific disciplines" because of the large, heterogeneous areas of study. However, general ecology theory is central to landscape ecology theory in many aspects. Landscape ecology consists of four main principles: the development and dynamics of spatial heterogeneity, interactions and exchanges across heterogeneous landscapes, influences of spatial heterogeneity on biotic and abiotic processes, and the management of spatial heterogeneity. The main difference from traditional ecological studies, which frequently assume that systems are spatially homogenous, is the consideration of spatial patterns.[33]

Important terms

[edit]

Landscape ecology not only created new terms, but also incorporated existing ecological terms in new ways. Many of the terms used in landscape ecology are as interconnected and interrelated as the discipline itself.

Landscape

[edit]
Main article: Landscape

Certainly, 'landscape' is a central concept in landscape ecology. It is, however, defined in quite different ways. For example:[19] Carl Troll conceives of landscape not as a mental construct but as an objectively given 'organic entity', a harmonic individuum of space.[34] Ernst Neef[20][21] defines landscapes as sections within the uninterrupted earth-wide interconnection of geofactors which are defined as such on the basis of their uniformity in terms of a specific land use, and are thus defined in an anthropocentric and relativistic way. According to Richard Forman and Michel Godron,[22] a landscape is a heterogeneous land area composed of a cluster of interacting ecosystems that is repeated in similar form throughout, whereby they list woods, meadows, marshes and villages as examples of a landscape's ecosystems, and state that a landscape is an area at least a few kilometres wide. John A. Wiens[24][25] opposes the traditional view expounded by Carl Troll, Isaak S. Zonneveld, Zev Naveh, Richard T. T. Forman/Michel Godron and others that landscapes are arenas in which humans interact with their environments on a kilometre-wide scale; instead, he defines 'landscape'—regardless of scale—as "the template on which spatial patterns influence ecological processes".[25][35] Some define 'landscape' as an area containing two or more ecosystems in close proximity.[15]

Scale and heterogeneity (incorporating composition, structure, and function)

[edit]
Main articles: Scale (geography) and Spatial heterogeneity

A main concept in landscape ecology is scale. Scale represents the real world as translated onto a map, relating distance on a map image and the corresponding distance on earth.[36] Scale is also the spatial or temporal measure of an object or a process,[33] or amount of spatial resolution.[6] Components of scale include composition, structure, and function, which are all important ecological concepts. Applied to landscape ecology, composition refers to the number of patch types (see below) represented on a landscape and their relative abundance. For example, the amount of forest or wetland, the length of forest edge, or the density of roads can be aspects of landscape composition. Structure is determined by the composition, the configuration, and the proportion of different patches across the landscape, while function refers to how each element in the landscape interacts based on its life cycle events.[33] Pattern is the term for the contents and internal order of a heterogeneous area of land.[17]

A landscape with structure and pattern implies that it has spatial heterogeneity, or the uneven distribution of objects across the landscape.[6] Heterogeneity is a key element of landscape ecology that separates this discipline from other branches of ecology. Landscape heterogeneity is able to quantify with agent-based methods as well.[37]

Patch and mosaic

[edit]
See also: Patch dynamics

Patch, a term fundamental to landscape ecology, is defined as a relatively homogeneous area that differs from its surroundings.[6] Patches are the basic unit of the landscape that change and fluctuate, a process called patch dynamics. Patches have a definite shape and spatial configuration, and can be described compositionally by internal variables such as number of trees, number of tree species, height of trees, or other similar measurements.[6]

Matrix is the "background ecological system" of a landscape with a high degree of connectivity. Connectivity is the measure of how connected or spatially continuous a corridor, network, or matrix is.[6] For example, a forested landscape (matrix) with fewer gaps in forest cover (open patches) will have higher connectivity. Corridors have important functions as strips of a particular type of landscape differing from adjacent land on both sides.[6] A network is an interconnected system of corridors while mosaic describes the pattern of patches, corridors, and matrix that form a landscape in its entirety.[6]

Boundary and edge

[edit]
Main article: Edge effect

Landscape patches have a boundary between them which can be defined or fuzzy.[15] The zone composed of the edges of adjacent ecosystems is the boundary.[6] Edge means the portion of an ecosystem near its perimeter, where influences of the adjacent patches can cause an environmental difference between the interior of the patch and its edge. This edge effect includes a distinctive species composition or abundance.[6] For example, when a landscape is a mosaic of perceptibly different types, such as a forest adjacent to a grassland, the edge is the location where the two types adjoin. In a continuous landscape, such as a forest giving way to open woodland, the exact edge location is fuzzy and is sometimes determined by a local gradient exceeding a threshold, such as the point where the tree cover falls below thirty-five percent.[33]

Ecotones, ecoclines, and ecotopes

[edit]
Main articles: Ecotone, Ecocline, and Ecotype

A type of boundary is the ecotone, or the transitional zone between two communities.[12] Ecotones can arise naturally, such as a lakeshore, or can be human-created, such as a cleared agricultural field from a forest.[12] The ecotonal community retains characteristics of each bordering community and often contains species not found in the adjacent communities. Classic examples of ecotones include fencerows, forest to marshlands transitions, forest to grassland transitions, or land-water interfaces such as riparian zones in forests. Characteristics of ecotones include vegetational sharpness, physiognomic change, occurrence of a spatial community mosaic, many exotic species, ecotonal species, spatial mass effect, and species richness higher or lower than either side of the ecotone.[38]

An ecocline is another type of landscape boundary, but it is a gradual and continuous change in environmental conditions of an ecosystem or community. Ecoclines help explain the distribution and diversity of organisms within a landscape because certain organisms survive better under certain conditions, which change along the ecocline. They contain heterogeneous communities which are considered more environmentally stable than those of ecotones.[39] An ecotope is a spatial term representing the smallest ecologically distinct unit in mapping and classification of landscapes.[6] Relatively homogeneous, they are spatially explicit landscape units used to stratify landscapes into ecologically distinct features. They are useful for the measurement and mapping of landscape structure, function, and change over time, and to examine the effects of disturbance and fragmentation.

Disturbance and fragmentation

[edit]
Main articles: Disturbance (ecology) and Habitat fragmentation

Disturbance is an event that significantly alters the pattern of variation in the structure or function of a system. Fragmentation is the breaking up of a habitat, ecosystem, or land-use type into smaller parcels.[6] Disturbance is generally considered a natural process. Fragmentation causes land transformation, an important process in landscapes as development occurs.

An important consequence of repeated, random clearing (whether by natural disturbance or human activity) is that contiguous cover can break down into isolated patches. This happens when the area cleared exceeds a critical level, which means that landscapes exhibit two phases: connected and disconnected.[40]

Theory

[edit]

Landscape ecology theory stresses the role of human impacts on landscape structures and functions. It also proposes ways for restoring degraded landscapes.[16] Landscape ecology explicitly includes humans as entities that cause functional changes on the landscape.[15] Landscape ecology theory includes the landscape stability principle, which emphasizes the importance of landscape structural heterogeneity in developing resistance to disturbances, recovery from disturbances, and promoting total system stability.[17] This principle is a major contribution to general ecological theories which highlight the importance of relationships among the various components of the landscape.

Integrity of landscape components helps maintain resistance to external threats, including development and land transformation by human activity.[5] Analysis of land use change has included a strongly geographical approach which has led to the acceptance of the idea of multifunctional properties of landscapes.[18] There are still calls for a more unified theory of landscape ecology due to differences in professional opinion among ecologists and its interdisciplinary approach (Bastian 2001).

An important related theory is hierarchy theory, which refers to how systems of discrete functional elements operate when linked at two or more scales. For example, a forested landscape might be hierarchically composed of drainage basins, which in turn are composed of local ecosystems, which are in turn composed of individual trees and gaps.[6] Recent theoretical developments in landscape ecology have emphasized the relationship between pattern and process, as well as the effect that changes in spatial scale has on the potential to extrapolate information across scales.[33] Several studies suggest that the landscape has critical thresholds at which ecological processes will show dramatic changes, such as the complete transformation of a landscape by an invasive species due to small changes in temperature characteristics which favor the invasive's habitat requirements.[33]

Application

[edit]

Research directions

[edit]

Developments in landscape ecology illustrate the important relationships between spatial patterns and ecological processes. These developments incorporate quantitative methods that link spatial patterns and ecological processes at broad spatial and temporal scales. This linkage of time, space, and environmental change can assist managers in applying plans to solve environmental problems.[5] The increased attention in recent years on spatial dynamics has highlighted the need for new quantitative methods that can analyze patterns, determine the importance of spatially explicit processes, and develop reliable models.[33] Multivariate analysis techniques are frequently used to examine landscape level vegetation patterns. Studies use statistical techniques, such as cluster analysis, canonical correspondence analysis (CCA), or detrended correspondence analysis (DCA), for classifying vegetation. Gradient analysis is another way to determine the vegetation structure across a landscape or to help delineate critical wetland habitat for conservation or mitigation purposes (Choesin and Boerner 2002).[41]

Climate change is another major component in structuring current research in landscape ecology.[42] Ecotones, as a basic unit in landscape studies, may have significance for management under climate change scenarios, since change effects are likely to be seen at ecotones first because of the unstable nature of a fringe habitat.[38] Research in northern regions has examined landscape ecological processes, such as the accumulation of snow, melting, freeze-thaw action, percolation, soil moisture variation, and temperature regimes through long-term measurements in Norway.[43] The study analyzes gradients across space and time between ecosystems of the central high mountains to determine relationships between distribution patterns of animals in their environment. Looking at where animals live, and how vegetation shifts over time, may provide insight into changes in snow and ice over long periods of time across the landscape as a whole.

Other landscape-scale studies maintain that human impact is likely the main determinant of landscape pattern over much of the globe.[44][45] Landscapes may become substitutes for biodiversity measures because plant and animal composition differs between samples taken from sites within different landscape categories. Taxa, or different species, can "leak" from one habitat into another, which has implications for landscape ecology. As human land use practices expand and continue to increase the proportion of edges in landscapes, the effects of this leakage across edges on assemblage integrity may become more significant in conservation. This is because taxa may be conserved across landscape levels, if not at local levels.[46]

Land change modeling

[edit]

Land change modeling is an application of landscape ecology designed to predict future changes in land use. Land change models are used in urban planning, geography, GIS, and other disciplines to gain a clear understanding of the course of a landscape.[47] In recent years, much of the Earth's land cover has changed rapidly, whether from deforestation or the expansion of urban areas.[48]

Relationship to other disciplines

[edit]

Landscape ecology has been incorporated into a variety of ecological subdisciplines. For example, it is closely linked to land change science, the interdisciplinary of land use and land cover change and their effects on surrounding ecology. Another recent development has been the more explicit consideration of spatial concepts and principles applied to the study of lakes, streams, and wetlands in the field of landscape limnology. Seascape ecology is a marine and coastal application of landscape ecology.[49] In addition, landscape ecology has important links to application-oriented disciplines such as agriculture and forestry. In agriculture, landscape ecology has introduced new options for the management of environmental threats brought about by the intensification of agricultural practices. Agriculture has always been a strong human impact on ecosystems.[18]

In forestry, from structuring stands for fuelwood and timber to ordering stands across landscapes to enhance aesthetics, consumer needs have affected conservation and use of forested landscapes. Landscape forestry provides methods, concepts, and analytic procedures for landscape forestry.[50] Landscape ecology has been cited as a contributor to the development of fisheries biology as a distinct biological science discipline,[51] and is frequently incorporated in study design for wetland delineation in hydrology.[39] It has helped shape integrated landscape management.[52] Lastly, landscape ecology has been very influential for progressing sustainability science and sustainable development planning. For example, a recent study assessed sustainable urbanization across Europe using evaluation indices, country-landscapes, and landscape ecology tools and methods.[53]

Landscape ecology has also been combined with population genetics to form the field of landscape genetics, which addresses how landscape features influence the population structure and gene flow of plant and animal populations across space and time[54] and on how the quality of intervening landscape, known as "matrix", influences spatial variation.[55] After the term was coined in 2003, the field of landscape genetics had expanded to over 655 studies by 2010,[56] and continues to grow today. As genetic data has become more readily accessible, it is increasingly being used by ecologists to answer novel evolutionary and ecological questions,[57] many with regard to how landscapes effect evolutionary processes, especially in human-modified landscapes, which are experiencing biodiversity loss.[58]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Wu J (January 2006). "Landscape ecology, cross-disciplinarity, and sustainability science". Landscape Ecology. 21 (1): 1–4. doi:10.1007/s10980-006-7195-2. S2CID 27192835.
  2. ^ a b Wu J, Hobbs R, eds. (2007). Key Topics in Landscape Ecology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  3. ^ Wu J (2008). "Landscape ecology.". In Jorgensen SE (ed.). Encyclopedia of Ecology. Oxford: Elsevier.
  4. ^ Leser H, Nagel P (2001). "Landscape diversity — a holistic approach". Biodiversity. Springer. pp. 129–143. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-06071-1_9. ISBN 978-3-642-08370-9.
  5. ^ a b c d Turner MG, Gardner RH, O'Neill RV (2001). Landscape Ecology in Theory and Practice. New York, NY, USA: Springer-Verlag.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Forman RT (1995). Land Mosaics: The Ecology of Landscapes and Regions. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
  7. ^ Wu & Hobbs 2002
  8. ^ Bloomfield LS, McIntosh TL, Lambin EF (2020-04-01). "Habitat fragmentation, livelihood behaviors, and contact between people and nonhuman primates in Africa". Landscape Ecology. 35 (4): 985–1000. doi:10.1007/s10980-020-00995-w. hdl:2078.1/243632. ISSN 1572-9761. S2CID 214731443.
  9. ^ Bausch DG, Schwarz L (2014-07-31). "Outbreak of ebola virus disease in Guinea: where ecology meets economy". PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 8 (7): e3056. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0003056. PMC 4117598. PMID 25079231.
  10. ^ Troll C (1939). "Luftbildplan und ökologische Bodenforschung" [Aerial photography and ecological studies of the earth]. Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde (in German). Berlin: 241–298.
  11. ^ Turner MG (1989). "Landscape ecology: the effect of pattern on process". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 20: 171–197. doi:10.1146/annurev.es.20.110189.001131.
  12. ^ a b c Allaby M (1998). Oxford Dictionary of Ecology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
  13. ^ Banaszak J, ed. (2000). Ecology of Forest Islands. Bydgoszcz, Poland: Bydgoszcz University Press. p. 313.
  14. ^ Steiniger S, Hay GJ (September 2009). "Free and open source geographic information tools for landscape ecology" (PDF). Ecological Informatics. 4 (4): 183–95. doi:10.1016/j.ecoinf.2009.07.004.
  15. ^ a b c d Sanderson J, Harris LD, eds. (2000). Landscape Ecology: A Top-Down Approach. Boca Raton, Florida, USA: Lewis Publishers.
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  18. ^ a b c Ryszkowski L, ed. (2002). Landscape Ecology in Agroecosystems Management. Florida, USA: CRC Press, Boca Raton.
  19. ^ a b c Kirchhoff T, Trepl L, Vicenzotti V (February 2013). "What is landscape ecology? An analysis and evaluation of six different conceptions". Landscape Research. 38 (1): 33–51. doi:10.1080/01426397.2011.640751. S2CID 145421450. All the following quotations and descriptions come from this source.
  20. ^ a b Neef E (1967). Die theoretischen Grundlagen der Landschaftslehre [The theoretical basics of landscape science] (in German). Gotha: Haack.
  21. ^ a b Haase G (1990). "Approaches to, and methods of landscape diagnosis as a basis of landscape planning and landscape management". Ekológia. 9 (1): 31–44.
  22. ^ a b Forman RT, Godron M (November 1981). "Patches and structural components for a landscape ecology". BioScience. 31 (10): 733–40. doi:10.2307/1308780. JSTOR 1308780.
  23. ^ Forman RT, Godron M (1986). Landscape ecology. NY: Wiley.
  24. ^ a b Wiens JA, Milne BT (December 1989). "Scaling of 'landscapes' in landscape ecology, or, landscape ecology from a beetle's perspective". Landscape Ecology. 3 (2): 87–96. doi:10.1007/BF00131172. S2CID 15683804.
  25. ^ a b c Wiens JA (1999). "The science and practice of landscape ecology.". In Klopatek JM, Gardner RH (eds.). Landscape ecological analyses: Issues and applications. NY: Springer. pp. 371–383.
  26. ^ Urban DL, O'Neill RV, Shugart Jr HH (February 1987). "A hierarchical perspective can help scientists understand spatial patterns" (PDF). BioScience. 37 (2): 119–27. doi:10.2307/1310366. JSTOR 1310366.
  27. ^ Leser H (1991). Landschaftsökologie. Ansatz, Modelle, Methodik, Anwendung. Stuttgart: Ulmer.
  28. ^ Naveh Z, Lieberman AS (1984). Landscape ecology. Theory and application. NY: Springer.
  29. ^ Naveh N (2000). "What is holistic landscape ecology? A conceptual introduction". Landscape and Urban Planning. 50 (1–3): 7–26. doi:10.1016/S0169-2046(00)00077-3.
  30. ^ Zonneveld IS (1995). Land ecology: an introduction to landscape ecology as a base for land evaluation, land management and conservation. Amsterdam: SPB.
  31. ^ However, not always under the designation 'landscape ecology', but as part of landscape stewardship, landscape architecture and, first and foremost, environmental or urban and landscape planning.
  32. ^ Hard G (1973). Die Geographie. Eine wissenschaftstheoretische Einführung. Berlin: deGruyter. pp. 92–95.
  33. ^ a b c d e f g Turner MG, Gardner RH, eds. (1991). Quantitative Methods in Landscape Ecology. New York, NY, USA: Springer-Verlag.
  34. ^ Troll C (2007). "The geographic landscape and its investigation.". In Wiens JA, Moss MR, Turner MG, Mladenoff DJ (eds.). Foundation papers in landscape ecology. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 71–101. First published as: Troll C (1950). "Die geographische Landschaft und ihre Erforschung". Studium Generale. Vol. 3. pp. 163–181. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-38240-0_20. ISBN 978-3-662-37475-7. cite book: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  35. ^ Wiens JA (2005). "Toward a unified landscape ecology". In Wiens JA, Moss MR (eds.). Issues and perspectives in landscape ecology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 365–373.
  36. ^ Malczewski J (1999). GIS and Multicriteria Decision Analysis. New York, NY, USA: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
  37. ^ Wirth E, Szabó G, Czinkóczky A (2016-06-07). "Measure of Landscape Heterogeneity by Agent-Based Methodology". ISPRS Annals of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences. III-8: 145–151. Bibcode:2016ISPAnIII8..145W. doi:10.5194/isprs-annals-iii-8-145-2016. ISSN 2194-9042.
  38. ^ a b Walker S, Wilson JB, Steel JB, Rapson GL, Smith B, King WM, Cottam YH (August 2003). "Properties of ecotones: evidence from five ecotones objectively determined from a coastal vegetation gradient". Journal of Vegetation Science. 14 (4): 579–90. doi:10.1111/j.1654-1103.2003.tb02185.x.
  39. ^ a b Attrill MJ, Rundle SD (December 2002). "Ecotone or ecocline: ecological boundaries in estuaries". Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 55 (6): 929–36. Bibcode:2002ECSS...55..929A. doi:10.1006/ecss.2002.1036.
  40. ^ Green DG, Klomp NI, Rimmington GR, Sadedin S (2006). Complexity in Landscape Ecology. Amsterdam: Springer. Archived from the original on 2008-06-19. Retrieved 2008-03-22.
  41. ^ Lyon J, Sagers CL (September 1998). "Structure of herbaceous plant assemblages in a forested riparian landscape". Plant Ecology. 138 (1): 1–6. doi:10.1023/A:1009705912710. S2CID 28628830.
  42. ^ Ochoa-Hueso R, Delgado-Baquerizo M, King PT, Benham M, Arca V, Power SA (February 2019). "Ecosystem type and resource quality are more important than global change drivers in regulating early stages of litter decomposition". Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 129: 144–152. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2018.11.009. hdl:10261/336676. S2CID 92606851.
  43. ^ Löffler J, Finch OD (November 2005). "Spatio-temporal gradients between high mountain ecosystems of central Norway". Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research. 37 (4): 499–513. doi:10.1657/1523-0430(2005)037[0499:sgbhme]2.0.co;2. S2CID 131326887.
  44. ^ Ellis, Erle C.; Gauthier, Nicolas; Klein Goldewijk, Kees; Bliege Bird, Rebecca; Boivin, Nicole; Díaz, Sandra; Fuller, Dorian Q.; Gill, Jacquelyn L.; Kaplan, Jed O.; Kingston, Naomi; Locke, Harvey; McMichael, Crystal N. H.; Ranco, Darren; Rick, Torben C.; Shaw, M. Rebecca (2021-04-27). "People have shaped most of terrestrial nature for at least 12,000 years". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 118 (17): e2023483118. doi:10.1073/pnas.2023483118. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 8092386. PMID 33875599.
  45. ^ Wilson JB, King WM (August 1995). "Human-mediated vegetation switches as processes in landscape ecology". Landscape Ecology. 10 (4): 191–6. doi:10.1007/BF00129253. S2CID 772430.
  46. ^ Dangerfield JM, Pik AJ, Britton D, Holmes A, Gillings M, Oliver IA, Briscoe D, Beattie AJ (June 2003). "Patterns of invertebrate biodiversity across a natural edge". Austral Ecology. 28 (3): 227–36. doi:10.1046/j.1442-9993.2003.01240.x.
  47. ^ National Research Council (2014). Advancing Land Change Modeling: Opportunities and Research Requirements. National Academies Press. pp. Chapter 1. doi:10.17226/18385. ISBN 978-0-309-28833-0.
  48. ^ University of Maryland. "GLCF: Global Land Cover Change". glcf.umd.edu. Archived from the original on 2019-06-09. Retrieved 2018-12-27.
  49. ^ Pittman SJ, ed. (2017). Seascape Ecology. Wiley & Sons.
  50. ^ Boyce SG (1995). Landscape Forestry. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
  51. ^ Magnuson JJ (February 1991). "Fish and fisheries ecology". Ecological Applications. 1 (1): 13–26. doi:10.2307/1941844. JSTOR 1941844. PMID 27755677.
  52. ^ Sayer J (2009). "Reconciling conservation and development: are landscapes the answer?". Biotropica. 41 (6): 649–652. doi:10.1111/j.1744-7429.2009.00575.x. S2CID 85171847.
  53. ^ Shaker RR (September 2015). "The well-being of nations: an empirical assessment of sustainable urbanization for Europe". International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology. 22 (5): 375–87. doi:10.1080/13504509.2015.1055524. S2CID 154904536.
  54. ^ Manel S, Schwartz MK, Luikart G, Taberlet P (April 2003). "Landscape genetics: combining landscape ecology and population genetics". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 18 (4): 189–197. doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00008-9. S2CID 2984426.
  55. ^ Storfer A, Murphy MA, Evans JS, Goldberg CS, Robinson S, Spear SF, et al. (March 2007). "Putting the "landscape" in landscape genetics". Heredity. 98 (3): 128–42. doi:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800917. PMID 17080024.
  56. ^ Storfer A, Murphy MA, Spear SF, Holderegger R, Waits LP (September 2010). "Landscape genetics: where are we now?". Molecular Ecology. 19 (17): 3496–514. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2010.04691.x. PMID 20723061. S2CID 16435893.
  57. ^ Balkenhol N, Cushman S, Storfer A, Waits L (2015-11-09). Landscape Genetics: Concepts, Methods, Applications. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781118525296.
  58. ^ Manel S, Holderegger R (October 2013). "Ten years of landscape genetics". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 28 (10): 614–21. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2013.05.012. PMID 23769416.
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"Landscapers" redirects here. For the 2021 true crime TV series, see Landscapers (TV series).
Landscaping an elementary school courtyard in the city of Kuching

Landscaping refers to any activity that modifies the visible features of an area of land, including the following:

  1. Living elements, such as flora or fauna; or what is commonly called gardening, the art and craft of growing plants with a goal of creating a beauty within the landscape.
  2. Natural abiotic elements, such as landforms, terrain shape and elevation, or bodies of water.
  3. Abstract elements, such as the weather and lighting conditions.

Landscaping requires a certain understanding of horticulture and artistic design, but is not limited to plants and horticulture. Sculpting land to enhance usability (patio, walkways, ponds, water features) are also examples of landscaping being used. When intended as purely an aesthetic change, the term Ornamental Landscaping is used.[1]

Often, designers refer to landscaping as an extension of rooms in your house (each one has a function). Outdoor spaces have a vast amount of flexibility as far as materials and function. It is often said the only limitation to outdoor space is one's imagination.

Industry Overivew

[edit]

Landscaping is not only a design practice but also a multi-billion dollar industry that supports hundreds of thousands of small businesses and contractors in the United States. In 2023 alone, the landscaping services industry generated over $129 billion in revenue, with more than 600,000 businesses operating nationwide. [2] The industry spans residential lawn care, hardscaping, tree services, and landscape architecture. Many landscaping companies also offer snow removal, irrigation, pest control, and seasonal planting to diversify revenue streams. [3] With low barriers to entry, landscaping remains one of the most popular service-based businesses for new entrepreneurs, especially in suburban and rural markets. [4]

Understanding the land

[edit]

Construction requires both study and observation, and the process varies in different parts of the world. Landscaping varies according to different regions.[5] Therefore, normally local natural experts are recommended if it is done for the first time. Understanding of the site is one of the chief essentials for successful landscaping.[6] Different natural features and phenomena, like the position of the sun, terrain, topography, soil qualities, prevailing winds, depth of the frost line, and the system of native flora and fauna must be taken into account.[7] Sometimes the land is not fit for landscaping. In order to landscape it, the land must be reshaped to direct water for appropriate drainage. This reshaping of land is called grading.[7] Sometimes in large landscaping projects like, parks, sports fields and reserves soil may need to be improved by adding nutrients for growth of plants or turf, this process is called soil amelioration.[8]

Removal of earth from the land is called cutting while when earth is added to the slope, it is called filling. Sometimes the grading process may involve removal of excessive waste (landfills), soil and rocks, so designers should take into account while in the planning stage.[9][10]

Additional information

[edit]

At the start, the landscaping contractor issues a statement which is a rough design and layout of what could be done with the land in order to achieve the desired outcome.[7] Different pencils are required to make graphics of the picture. Landscaping has become more technological than natural, as few projects begin without bulldozers, lawnmowers, or chainsaws.[5] Different areas have different qualities of plants. When growing new grass, it should ideally be done in the spring and the fall seasons to maximize growth and to minimize the spread of weeds. It is generally agreed that organic or chemical fertilizers are required for good plant growth. Some landscapers prefer to use mix gravel with rocks of varying sizes to add interest in large areas.[11]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "What is ornamental landscaping?". NatraTex. Retrieved 2022-03-30.
  2. ^ https://www.ibisworld.com/united-states/market-research-reports/landscaping-services-industry/
  3. ^ https://www.statista.com/statistics/1090540/us-landscaping-industry-market-size/
  4. ^ https://www.lawnstarter.com/blog/studies/lawn-care-industry-statistics/
  5. ^ a b Diekelmann, John; Schuster, Robert M. (2002). Natural Landscaping: Designing with Native Plant Communities. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-17324-1.
  6. ^ James, Сarolyn (July 14, 2020). "Landscaping Challenges". Archived from the original on 2021-05-13.
  7. ^ a b c Ingels, Jack (2009). Landscaping Principles and Practices. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-4283-7641-0.
  8. ^ "Soil Preparation Steps For Successful Landscape Projects". chandlerlandscapeing.com. 2024-12-22. Retrieved 2024-12-22.
  9. ^ Slack, William (1998). Landscaping. Oxmoor House. ISBN 978-0-8487-2251-7.
  10. ^ Buchanan, Rita (2000). Taylor's Master Guide to Landscaping. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 0-618-05590-8.
  11. ^ Sharon Cohoon and Jim McCausland. "How to Landscape Gravel". Sunset.com. Archived from the original on 2020-01-31. Retrieved 2013-04-10.
[edit]
 

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Reviews for Rock N Block - Turf N Hardscapes - San Diego

Rock N Block - Turf N Hardscapes - San Diego

Corbin Occhino

(5)

TL;DR It was a bumpy road to get to the finish line but when we got there, it was sooooo worth it. Go with Rock-n-Block, you won't regret it. Their initial backyard renovation didn't end up how we hoped it would. The team came back multiple times to do repairs but couldn't get it right. *ENTER Greg Zamora*. He comes over, walks into the backyard, looks around and says "we'll fix it". Dude wasn't joking. Rock-n-Block bought all new blocks, capstones, lights, etc and sent a huge crew to the house. They demoed everything and rebuilt it all. They even let us make a few minor changes to the initial design for free (changed shape of the retaining wall and added more lights under the capstones). Three and a half days later we got the backyard we had dreamed of. Everything is perfect. Shout-out to Gus and Miguel and their crew, they killed it! Guys were here early, worked hard, were meticulous, and cleaned up at the end of each day. Watching how much time they put into the grouting and how exact the stone cuts were, we new it was going to end well this time. Greg checked in multiple times to make sure we were happy with the progress and that we had no questions/concerns. Open communication, excellent quality of work, and ACTUALLY meaning it when they say "we aren't done until you are happy". To be honest, we were really surprised our backyard renovation story ended this way after the initial install. Had someone asked us a month ago if we would recommend Rock-n-Block we would have shook our head but NOW....not only would we recommend them, if we do any other yard renovations, they will be the first people we call.

Rock N Block - Turf N Hardscapes - San Diego

Md dc

(5)

From Omar's initial consultation to Andrew's design expertise, Rock N Block made the entire process easy. The patio looks amazing! I love the turf, rock decorations, and everything else they did. The key was their attention to details, me and my family are very happy with their work!

Rock N Block - Turf N Hardscapes - San Diego

Ying Xu

(5)

I interviewed a number of contractors and decided to use Rock N Block for my backyard project. Andrew was the project manager who came to my house to make an initial estimate, and he followed up with me every step of the way. Although I had to wait 3 weeks for my project to begin, there was no further delay from that point on. The crew showed up punctually at 7am every morning, and did the work exactly as described. The were able to finish the project from concrete demolition to final cleanup within 4 days. I would happily recommend this business to my neighbors.

Rock N Block - Turf N Hardscapes - San Diego

Paco Healy

(5)

really good experience working with Greg and Eric they were both great from start to finish. they both were great communicators and took a lot of pride in their craft. my backyard was an eye sore and now it’s a whole new inviting space. our pup loves it too. thank you and Block team. highly recommended

Rock N Block - Turf N Hardscapes - San Diego

Nikki White

(5)

Greg was super helpful and knowledgeable. The process was super quick and easy and communication about the turf project was great. I’m sooooo happy with how my front yard looks! I find myself just looking at how amazing it looks now!

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