Choosing the right insurance plan for your company can feel overwhelming, especially when you're juggling so many other priorities. One key factor in finding the right fit is the size of your company, specifically the number of employees. Insurance needs tend to shift as your team grows, so let's break down how employee count brackets can influence your decisions.
For small startups with 1-10 employees, simplicity and affordability are often paramount. Basic plans covering core needs like health and liability are usually sufficient. You might consider a Health Reimbursement Arrangement (HRA) to help employees cover out-of-pocket expenses, as group health insurance can sometimes be pricey for tiny teams. As you grow, the focus shifts.
Once you hit the 11-50 employee range, you're likely starting to attract more experienced hires and need to offer more competitive benefits to retain them. This bracket often marks the point where offering a traditional group health insurance plan becomes more cost-effective and attractive. You might also start thinking about additional perks like dental, vision, and life insurance. The complexity of managing these benefits also increases, so exploring broker services or HR software can be helpful.
Companies with 51-100 employees often experience a significant shift in insurance needs. Compliance requirements become more stringent, and the range of employee needs broadens. You might need to offer different tiers of health insurance to cater to diverse family situations and health priorities. Retirement plans, like 401(k)s, become increasingly important for attracting and retaining talent. At this stage, dedicated HR professionals or robust HR systems are practically essential.
Finally, for companies with 100+ employees, a comprehensive benefits package is almost expected. This often includes a wider selection of health plans, robust retirement options, and potentially even perks like stock options or employee assistance programs. Managing benefits for a large workforce requires specialized expertise, often involving a dedicated HR department and potentially even consulting with benefits specialists to ensure compliance and optimize offerings.
In short, the size of your company plays a crucial role in shaping your insurance strategy. Understanding the typical needs and options within each employee count bracket can help you navigate the complexities of benefits and build a package that attracts, retains, and supports your valuable team.
Running a tree service comes with inherent risks. From climbing high branches to operating heavy machinery, your employees face potential injuries on the job. That's why Workers' Compensation insurance isn't just a good idea-it's often legally required. And the size of your tree service, specifically the number of employees, directly impacts both the requirements and costs of this crucial coverage.
If you're a solo operator with no employees, you might be exempt from Workers' Comp requirements in some states. However, getting coverage anyway is a smart move for personal protection. Once you hire even one employee, requirements kick in almost everywhere. As your team grows, so does your premium, since more employees mean a greater risk of workplace incidents.
A small tree service with a handful of employees will obviously pay less than a larger company with multiple crews. Insurers calculate premiums based on factors like payroll, job classifications (climber, grounds crew, etc.), and your company's safety record. Higher-risk roles like climbers contribute more to the premium due to the increased chance of injury. A good safety program, including training and proper equipment, can help lower your rates over time by demonstrating a commitment to accident prevention.
Beyond the legal obligation, Workers' Comp provides essential benefits to both you and your employees. It covers medical expenses, lost wages, and rehabilitation costs for employees injured on the job. This protection not only helps your employees recover but also safeguards your business from potentially crippling lawsuits. Investing in the right Workers' Comp coverage is an investment in the well-being of your team and the long-term health of your tree service business. It's always advisable to consult with an insurance professional to ensure you have adequate coverage that meets your specific needs and state regulations.
It makes intuitive sense that a bigger company, with more employees, would face higher general liability insurance premiums. After all, more people mean more opportunities for accidents, injuries, and potential lawsuits. However, the relationship between crew size and general liability premiums isn't quite as straightforward as a simple "more employees = higher premium" equation. While the number of employees is definitely a factor, it's one piece of a larger puzzle.
Insurers consider several key elements when calculating premiums, and crew size influences some of them more directly than others. For example, payroll is a major driver of premium calculations. A larger crew naturally means a higher payroll, which, in turn, often leads to a higher premium. This is because a higher payroll suggests a larger scope of operations and potentially greater exposure to risk.
Another factor is the classification of the business and the inherent risks associated with the work being performed. A small construction company with ten employees will likely pay significantly more than a five-person accounting firm, even though the construction company has fewer employees. This is because construction work carries a much higher risk of on-the-job injuries than accounting. So, while a larger crew within the same industry generally leads to a higher premium, comparing crew sizes across different industries doesn't tell the whole story.
Furthermore, a company's claims history plays a crucial role. A small company with a history of frequent accidents and claims could pay more than a larger company with a spotless record. This highlights the importance of safety protocols and risk management practices, which can mitigate risk and potentially lower premiums regardless of crew size.
Finally, location can also influence premiums. A company operating in an area with high litigation rates or a history of natural disasters may face higher premiums regardless of the number of employees.
In conclusion, while crew size, represented by the number of employees, is a factor in determining general liability insurance premiums, it's not the sole determinant. The nature of the business, payroll, claims history, location, and the effectiveness of safety programs all contribute to the final premium calculation. Understanding these interconnected factors helps businesses of all sizes make informed decisions about insurance coverage and risk management.
The size of your company, specifically the number of employees, plays a significant role in shaping your commercial auto insurance needs. A small business with a handful of employees and a couple of delivery vans will have vastly different requirements than a large corporation managing a fleet of hundreds of vehicles and drivers. Let's explore how the employee count influences your commercial auto insurance strategy.
For smaller businesses with a limited number of drivers, the focus is often on affordability and basic coverage. You'll want to ensure you have liability coverage to protect against third-party claims in case of accidents. Physical damage coverage for your vehicles is also crucial, safeguarding your investment against collisions, theft, and other perils. As your employee count grows, so does the potential for accidents. This means higher premiums, but also the need to consider higher coverage limits to adequately protect the business from larger claims.
Mid-sized companies with a growing fleet and a more extensive workforce face more complex insurance decisions. With more drivers on the road, the risk of accidents increases proportionally. This necessitates a more comprehensive approach to risk management. You might consider adding hired and non-owned auto coverage to protect the business when employees use their personal vehicles for work purposes. Driver training programs become increasingly important to mitigate risk and potentially lower premiums. Regularly reviewing driver records and implementing safety protocols can also help manage insurance costs.
Larger companies with substantial fleets and numerous drivers require a sophisticated and tailored insurance program. They often benefit from working with an experienced insurance broker who can navigate the complexities of managing a large fleet. Telematics programs, which monitor driver behavior through GPS tracking and other data, can provide valuable insights to improve safety and reduce premiums. These companies may also explore options like self-insurance or captive insurance arrangements for greater control over their risk management and potential cost savings. Furthermore, managing driver qualifications and ensuring compliance with Department of Transportation (DOT) regulations becomes a significant undertaking.
In conclusion, the number of employees directly impacts the scope and complexity of your commercial auto insurance needs. As your company grows, so should the sophistication of your insurance strategy. Regularly assessing your needs and working with a knowledgeable insurance professional will ensure you have the right coverage in place to protect your business and your employees.
Horticulture is the art and science of growing fruits, vegetables, flowers, trees, shrubs and ornamental plants. Horticulture is commonly associated with the more professional and technical aspects of plant cultivation on a smaller and more controlled scale than agronomy. There are various divisions of horticulture because plants are grown for a variety of purposes.[1] These divisions include, but are not limited to: propagation, arboriculture, landscaping, floriculture and turf maintenance. For each of these, there are various professions, aspects, tools used and associated challenges -- each requiring highly specialized skills and knowledge on the part of the horticulturist.
Typically, horticulture is characterized as the ornamental, small-scale and non-industrial cultivation of plants; horticulture is distinct from gardening by its emphasis on scientific methods, plant breeding, and technical cultivation practices, while gardening, even at a professional level, tends to focus more on the aesthetic care and maintenance of plants in gardens or landscapes. However, some aspects of horticulture are industrialized or commercial such as greenhouse production or CEA.
Horticulture began with the domestication of plants c. 10,000 – c. 20,000 years ago.[2][3] At first, only plants for sustenance were grown and maintained, but as humanity became increasingly sedentary, plants were grown for their ornamental value. Horticulture emerged as a distinct field from agriculture when humans sought to cultivate plants for pleasure on a smaller scale rather than exclusively for sustenance.
Emerging technologies are moving the industry forward, especially in the alteration of plants to be more resistant to parasites, disease and drought. Modifying technologies such as CRISPR are also improving the nutrition, taste and yield of crops.
Many horticultural organizations and societies around the world have been formed by horticulturists and those within the industry. These include the Royal Horticultural Society, the International Society for Horticultural Science,[4] and the American Society of Horticultural Science.[5]
There are divisions and sub-divisions within horticulture because plants are grown for many different reasons. Some of the divisions in horticulture include:
It includes the cultivation of all plants including, but not limited to: ornamental plants, fruits, vegetables, flowers, turf, nuts, seeds, herbs and other medicinal/edible plants. This cultivation may occur in garden spaces, nurseries, greenhouses, vineyards, orchards, parks, recreation areas, etc. [citation needed]
Horticulturists study and practice the cultivation of plant material professionally. There are many different types of horticulturists with different job titles, including: gardener, grower, farmer, arborist, floriculturist, landscaper, agronomist, designer, landscape architect, lawn-care specialist, nursery manager, botanical garden curator, horticulture therapist, and much more.[9] They may be hired by a variety of companies/institutions including, but not limited to: botanical gardens, private/public gardens, parks, cemeteries, greenhouses, golf courses, vineyards, estates, landscaping companies, nurseries, educational institutions, etc. They may also be self-employed.[citation needed]
Horticulture began with the domestication of plants 10,000–20,000 years ago and has since been deeply integrated into human history.[2][3] The domestication of plants occurred independently within various civilizations across the globe. The history of horticulture overlaps with the history of agriculture and history of botany, as all three originated with the domestication of various plants for food.[3] In Europe, agriculture and horticulture diverged at some point during the Middle Ages.[10]
Early practices in horticulture include various tools and methods of land management, with different methods and plant types used for different uses. Methods, tools and plants grown have always depended on the culture and climate.[citation needed]
Many traditional horticultural practices are known, such as the Indigenous peoples of pre-colonized North America using biochar to enhance soil productivity by smoldering plant waste[11] – European settlers called this soil Terra Preta de Indio.[12] In North America, Indigenous people grew maize, squash, and sunflower, among other crops. Mesoamerican cultures focused on cultivating crops on a small scale, such as the milpa or maize field, around their dwellings or in specialized plots which were visited occasionally during migrations from one area to the next.[13] In Central America, the Maya involved augmentation of the forest with useful trees such as papaya, avocado, cacao, ceiba and sapodilla. In the fields, multiple crops such as beans, squash, pumpkins and chili peppers were grown. The first horticulturists in many cultures were mainly or exclusively women.[14]
In addition to plants' medicinal and nutritional value, plants have also been grown for their beauty, to impress and to demonstrate power, knowledge, status and even wealth of those in control of the cultivated plant material. This symbolic power that plants hold has existed even before the beginnings of their cultivation.[15]
There is evidence that various gardens maintained by the Aztecs were sacred, as they grew plants that held religious value. Plants were grown for their metaphorical relation to gods and goddesses.[10] Flowers held symbolic power in religious rites, as they were offered to the gods and given in ceremonies to leaders to demonstrate their connection to the gods.[10]
Plant propagation in horticulture is the process by which the number of individual plants is increased. Propagation involves both sexual and asexual methods.[16] Sexual propagation uses seeds, while asexual propagation involves the division of plants, separation of tubers, corms, and bulbs using techniques such as cutting, layering, grafting.[17]
When selecting plants to cultivate, a horticulturist may consider aspects based on the plant's intended use, including plant morphology, rarity, and utility.[18] When selecting plants for the landscape, observations of the location must be made first. Soil type, temperature, climate, light, moisture, and pre-existing plants are considered when selecting plant material for the location. Plant selection may be for annual displays, or they may be for more permanent plantings. Characteristics of the plant – such as mature height and size, colour, growth habit, ornamental value, flowering time and invasive potential – finalize the plant selection process.[citation needed]
Environmental factors affecting plant development include temperature, light, water, soil pH, nutrient availability, weather, humidity, elevation, terrain, and micro-climate.[1] In horticulture, these environmental variables may be avoided, controlled or manipulated in an indoor growing environment.
Plants require specific temperatures to grow and develop properly. Temperature can be controlled through a variety of methods. Covering plants with plastic in the form of cones called hot caps, or tunnels, can help to manipulate the surrounding temperature. Mulching is also an effective method to protect outdoor plants from frost during the winter. Inside, other frost prevention methods include wind machines, heaters, and sprinklers.[19]
Plants have evolved to require different amounts of light and lengths of daytime; their growth and development are determined by the amount of light they receive. Control of this may be achieved artificially with fluorescent lights in an indoor setting. Manipulating the amount of light also controls flowering. Lengthening the day encourages the flowering of long-day plants and discourages the flowering of short-day plants.[19]
Water management methods involve employing irrigation and drainage systems and controlling soil moisture to the needs of the species. Irrigation methods include surface irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, sub-irrigation, and trickle irrigation. Watering volume, pressure, and frequency are changed to optimize the growing environment. On a small scale, watering can be done manually.[19]
The choice of growing media and components to the media help support plant life. Within a greenhouse environment, growers may choose to grow their plants in an aquaponic system where no soil is used. Growers within a greenhouse setting will often opt for a soilless mix which does not include any actual components of naturally occurring soil. These mixes are generally very available within the industry and offer advantages such as water absorption and sterility.[citation needed]
Soil management methods are broad but include the applying fertilizers, planned crop rotation to prevent the soil degradation seen in monocultures, and soil analysis.[19]
Abiotic factors such as weather, light and temperature are all things that can be manipulated with enclosed environments such as cold frames, greenhouses, conservatories, poly houses and shade houses. Materials used in constructing these buildings are chosen based on the climate, purpose and budget.[citation needed]
Cold frames provide an enclosed environment; they are built close to the ground and with a top made of glass or plastic. The glass or plastic allows sunlight into the frame during the day and prevents heat loss that would have been lost as long-wave radiation at night. This allows plants to begin growing before the growing season starts. Greenhouses and conservatories are similar in function but are larger and heated with an external energy source. They can be built out of glass but are now primarily made from plastic sheets. More expensive and modern greenhouses can include temperature control through shade and light control or air-conditioning and automatic watering. Shade houses provide shading to limit water loss by evapotranspiration.[19]
Commercial horticulture is required to support a rapidly growing population with demands for its products.[20] Due to global climate change, extremes in temperatures, strength of precipitation events, flood frequency, and drought length and frequency are increasing. Together with other abiotic stressors such as salinity, heavy metal toxicity, UV damage, and air pollution, stressful environments are created for crop production. This is extrapolated as evapotranspiration is increased, soils are degraded of nutrients, and oxygen levels are depleted, resulting in up to a 70% loss in crop yield.[citation needed]
Living organisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, insects, weeds and native plants are sources of biotic stresses and can deprive the host of nutrients.[21] Plants respond to these stresses using defence mechanisms such as morphological and structural barriers, chemical compounds, proteins, enzymes and hormones.[22] The impact of biotic stresses can be prevented using practices such as incorporate tilling, spraying or Integrated Pest Management (IPM).[23]
Care is required to reduce damages and losses to horticultural crops during harvest.[24] Compression forces occur during harvesting, and horticultural goods can be hit in a series of impacts during transport and packhouse operations. Different techniques are used to minimize mechanical injuries and wounding to plants such as:[25]
Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) has recently gained recognition as a highly efficient, simplified, precise, and low-cost method of altering the genomes of species.[26] Since 2013, CRISPR has been used to enhance a variety of species of grains, fruits, and vegetables. Crops are modified to increase their resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors such as parasites, disease, and drought as well as increase yield, nutrition, and flavour.[27] Additionally, CRISPR has been used to edit undesirable traits, for example, reducing the browning and production of toxic and bitter substances of potatoes. CRISPR has also been employed to solve issues of low pollination rates and low fruit yield common in greenhouses. As compared to genetically modified organisms (GMO), CRISPR does not add any alien DNA to the plant's genes.[28]
Various organizations worldwide focus on promoting and encouraging research and education in all branches of horticultural science; such organizations include the International Society for Horticultural Science[4] and the American Society of Horticultural Science.[5]
In the United Kingdom, there are two main horticulture societies.[citation needed] The Ancient Society of York Florists is the oldest horticultural society in the world and was founded in 1768; this organization continues to host four horticultural shows annually in York, England.[29] Additionally, The Royal Horticultural Society, established in 1804, is a charity in United Kingdom that leads on the encouragement and improvement of the science, art, and practice of horticulture in all its branches.[30] The organization shares the knowledge of horticulture through its community, learning programs, and world-class gardens and shows.[citation needed]
The Chartered Institute of Horticulture (CIH) is the Chartered professional body for horticulturists and horticultural scientists representing all sectors of the horticultural industry across Great Britain, Ireland and overseas. While horticulture is an unregulated profession in the United Kingdom, the title of Chartered Horticulturalist is regulated by the CIH.[31] The Australian Institute of Horticulture and Australian Society of Horticultural Science were established in 1990 as a professional society to promote and enhance Australian horticultural science and industry.[32] Finally, the New Zealand Horticulture Institute is another known horticultural organization.[33]
In India, the Horticultural Society of India (now the Indian Academy of Horticultural Sciences) is the oldest society; it was established in 1941 at Lyallpur, Punjab (now in Pakistan) but was later shifted to Delhi in 1949.[34] The other notable organization in operation since 2005 is the Society for Promotion of Horticulture based at Bengaluru.[35] Both these societies publish scholarly journals – Indian Journal of Horticulture and Journal of Horticultural Sciences for the advancement of horticultural sciences.[citation needed] Horticulture in the Indian state of Kerala is led by Kerala State Horticulture Mission.[citation needed]
The National Junior Horticultural Association (NJHA) was established in 1934 and was the first organization in the world dedicated solely to youth and horticulture. NJHA programs are designed to help young people obtain a basic understanding of horticulture and develop horticultural skills.[36]
The Global Horticulture Initiative (GlobalHort) fosters partnerships and collective action among different stakeholders in horticulture. This organization focuses on horticulture for development (H4D), which involves using horticulture to reduce poverty and improve nutrition worldwide. GlobalHort is organized in a consortium of national and international organizations which collaborate in research, training, and technology-generating activities designed to meet mutually agreed-upon objectives. GlobalHort is a non-profit organization registered in Belgium.[37]
Arboriculture (/ˈɑËÂÂÂrbÉ™rɪˌkÊŒltʃər, É‘ËÂÂÂrˈbÉâ€ÂÂËÂÂÂr-/)[1] is the cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants. The science of arboriculture studies how these plants grow and respond to cultural practices and to their environment. The practice of arboriculture includes cultural techniques such as selection, planting, training, fertilization, pest and pathogen control, pruning, shaping, and removal.
A person who practices or studies arboriculture can be termed an arborist or an arboriculturist. A tree surgeon is more typically someone who is trained in the physical maintenance and manipulation of trees and therefore more a part of the arboriculture process rather than an arborist. Risk management, legal issues, and aesthetic considerations have come to play prominent roles in the practice of arboriculture. Businesses often need to hire arboriculturists to complete "tree hazard surveys" and generally manage the trees on-site to fulfill occupational safety and health obligations.[citation needed]
Arboriculture is primarily focused on individual woody plants and trees maintained for permanent landscape and amenity purposes, usually in gardens, parks or other populated settings, by arborists, for the enjoyment, protection, and benefit of people.[citation needed]
Arboricultural matters are also considered to be within the practice of urban forestry yet the clear and separate divisions are not distinct or discreet.[citation needed]
Tree benefits are the economic, ecological, social and aesthetic use, function purpose, or services of a tree (or group of trees), in its situational context in the landscape.
A tree defect is any feature, condition, or deformity of a tree that indicates weak structure or instability that could contribute to tree failure.
Common types of tree defects:
Codominant stems: two or more stems that grow upward from a single point of origin and compete with one another.
Included bark: bark is incorporated in the joint between two limbs, creating a weak attachment
Dead, diseased, or broken branches:
Cracks
Cavity and hollows: sunken or open areas wherein a tree has suffered injury followed by decay. Further indications include: fungal fruiting structures, insect or animal nests.
Lean: a lean of more than 40% from vertical presents a risk of tree failure
Taper: change in diameter over the length of trunks branches and roots
Epicormic branches (water sprouts in canopy or suckers from root system): often grow in response to major damage or excessive pruning
Roots:
Proper tree installation ensures the long-term viability of the tree and reduces the risk of tree failure.
Quality nursery stock must be used. There must be no visible damage or sign of disease. Ideally the tree should have good crown structure. A healthy root ball should not have circling roots and new fibrous roots should be present at the soil perimeter. Girdling or circling roots should be pruned out. Excess soil above the root flare should be removed immediately, since it presents a risk of disease ingress into the trunk.
Appropriate time of year to plant: generally fall or early spring in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere.
Planting hole: the planting hole should be 3 times the width of the root ball. The hole should be dug deep enough that when the root ball is placed on the substrate, the root flare is 3–5cm above the surrounding soil grade. If soil is left against the trunk, it may lead to bark, cambium and wood decay. Angular sides to the planting hole will encourage roots to grow radially from the trunk, rather than circling the planting hole. In urban settings, soil preparation may include the use of:
Tree wells: a zone of mulch can be installed around the tree trunk to: limit root zone competition (from turf or weeds), reduce soil compaction, improve soil structure, conserve moisture, and keep lawn equipment at a distance. No more than 5–10cm of mulch should be used to avoid suffocating the roots. Mulch must be kept approximately 20cm from the trunk to avoid burying the root flare. With city trees additional tree well preparation includes:
Tree grates/grill and frames: limit compaction on root zone and mechanical damage to roots and trunk
Root barriers: forces roots to grow down under surface asphalt/concrete/pavers to limit infrastructure damage from roots
Staking: newly planted, immature trees should be staked for one growing season to allow for the root system to establish. Staking for longer than one season should only be considered in situations where the root system has failed to establish sufficient structural support. Guy wires can be used for larger, newly planted trees. Care must be used to avoid stem girdling from the support system ties.
Irrigation: irrigation infrastructure may be installed to ensure a regular water supply throughout the lifetime of the tree. Wicking beds are an underground reservoir from which water is wicked into soil. Watering bags may be temporarily installed around tree stakes to provide water until the root system becomes established. Permeable paving allows for water infiltration in paved urban settings, such as parks and walkways.
Within the United Kingdom trees are considered as a material consideration within the town planning system and may be conserved as amenity landscape[2] features.
The role of the Arborist or Local Government Arboricultural Officer is likely to have a great effect on such matters. Identification of trees of high quality which may have extensive longevity is a key element in the preservation of trees.
Urban and rural trees may benefit from statutory protection under the Town and Country Planning[3] system. Such protection can result in the conservation and improvement of the urban forest as well as rural settlements.
Historically the profession divides into the operational and professional areas. These might be further subdivided into the private and public sectors. The profession is broadly considered as having one trade body known as the Arboricultural Association, although the Institute of Chartered Foresters offers a route for professional recognition and chartered arboriculturist status.
The qualifications associated with the industry range from vocational to Doctorate. Arboriculture is a comparatively young industry.
Pruning is a horticultural, arboricultural, and silvicultural practice involving the selective removal of certain parts of a plant, such as branches, buds, or roots.
The practice entails the targeted removal of diseased, damaged, dead, non-productive, structurally unsound, or otherwise unwanted plant material from crop and landscape plants. In general, the smaller the branch that is cut, the easier it is for a woody plant to compartmentalize the wound and thus limit the potential for pathogen intrusion and decay. It is therefore preferable to make any necessary formative structural pruning cuts to young plants, rather than removing large, poorly placed branches from mature plants.
Woody plants may undergo a process referred to as "self-pruning", where they will drop twigs or branches which are no longer producing more energy than they require. It is theorized that this process can also occur in response to lack of water, in order to reduce the surface area where water can be lost.[1] This natural shedding of branches is called cladoptosis.
Specialized pruning practices may be applied to certain plants, such as roses, fruit trees, and grapevines. Different pruning techniques may be used on herbaceous plants than those used on perennial woody plants.
Reasons to prune plants include deadwood removal, shaping (by controlling or redirecting growth), improving or sustaining health, reducing risk from falling branches, preparing nursery specimens for transplanting, and both harvesting and increasing the yield or quality of flowers and fruits.
Branch wood is an individual stem that grows off of another stem.
Trunk wood is the main stem of a tree which individual stems grow out of.
This refers to the area below the union of where branch wood attaches with the trunk/stem wood. This can often appear raised.
This refers to the junction between branch wood and trunk/stem wood. It usually looks raised. [2]
Pruning in an urban setting is crucial due to the tree being in drastically different conditions than where it naturally grows.[3]
Arborists, orchardists, and gardeners use various garden tools and tree cutting tools designed for the purpose, such as secateurs, loppers, handsaws, or chainsaws.[4] Additionally in forestry, pole pruners (averruncators in British English) and pole saws are commonly used, and these are often attached to poles that reach up to 5–6 m (16–20 ft). This is a more efficient and safer way of pruning than with ladders. These bush saws on polls have also been motorized as chainsaws which is even more efficient. Older technology used Billhooks, Kaiser blades, and pruning knives. Although still used in some coppicing, they are not used so much in commercial forestry due to the difficulty of cutting flush with the stem. Flush cuts happen when a pruner cuts into the cambium layer of the main trunk, which can happen when a pruner is not precise with pruning cuts, and removes a portion of the branch collar, which can put the tree at risk of entry cords from forest pathogens.
Although there are several different types of pruning, they can be simplified into two categories. One of which is cutting the branch back to a specific and intermediate point, called a "reduction cut", and the other of which is completely removing a branch back to the union where the branch connects which the main trunk, called "removal cut".[5]
A "reduction cut" is when one removes a portion of a growing stem down to a set of desirable buds or side-branching stems. This is commonly performed in well trained plants for a variety of reasons, for example to stimulate growth of flowers, fruit or branches, as a preventive measure to wind and snow damage on long stems and branches, and finally to encourage growth of the stems in a desirable direction.
In orchards, fruit trees are often lopped to encourage regrowth and to maintain a smaller tree for ease of picking fruit. The pruning regime in orchards is more planned, and the productivity of each tree is an important factor.
Branches die off for a number of reasons including sunlight deficiency, pest and disease damage, and root structure damage. A dead branch will at some point decay back to the parent stem and fall off. This is normally a slow process but can be hastened by high winds or extreme temperatures. The main reason deadwooding is performed is safety. Situations that usually demand removal of deadwood include trees that overhang public roads, houses, public areas, power lines, telephone cables and gardens. Trees located in wooded areas are usually assessed as lower risk but assessments consider the number of visitors. Trees adjacent to footpaths and access roads are often considered for deadwood removal.[8]
Another reason for deadwooding is amenity value, i.e. a tree with a large amount of deadwood throughout the crown will look more aesthetically pleasing with the deadwood removed. The physical practice of deadwooding can be carried out most of the year though should be avoided when the tree is coming into leaf. The deadwooding process speeds up the tree's natural abscission process. It also reduces unwanted weight and wind resistance and can help overall balance.
Preventative and structural pruning can be done to mitigate several issues young trees may have in the future. The structural pruning can reduce tree stress, increase the lifespan of trees, and promotes resistance to damage due to natural weather events. Attributes of trees with good structure include excurrent growth by having a single dominant leader, branch unions without included bark, and a balanced canopy. Structural pruning does this by developing or maintaining a dominant leader, identify the lowest branches in the canopy, prevent branches below the permanent canopy from growing too large, keeping all branches less than one half the trunk diameter, space main branches along one dominant trunk, and suppress growth on branches with included bark. [9]
Subordination pruning is done on limbs that will exceed 50% percent of the stem diameter. A reduction cut may be performed while still allowing about 50% of the branch. This is done to help maintain form and deter the formation of co-dominant leaders. Temporary branches may be too large for a removal cut so subordination pruning should be done to slowly reduce a limb by 50% each year to allow the tree to properly heal from the cut. As a tree becomes larger the slower it grows. Reducing the larger limbs for eventual removal will allow for the tree to promote new growth rather than using energy in encouraging unwanted limbs to continue to grow. Removing a large branch increases the likelihood of the cut to not heal properly which also may attract insects, diseases and fungus. [9][10]
Crown thinning is the removal of live healthy branches which increases light penetration, air circulation and reduces wind resistance which reduces risks from damage and the possibility of pest infestation. [11]
Crown raising involves the removal of the lower branches to a given height. The height is achieved by the removal of whole branches or removing the parts of branches which extend below the desired height. The branches are normally not lifted to more than one third of the tree's total height.
Crown lifting is done for access; these being pedestrian, vehicle or space for buildings and street furniture. Lifting the crown will allow traffic and pedestrians to pass underneath safely. This pruning technique is usually used in the urban environment as it is for public safety and aesthetics rather than tree form and timber value.
Crown lifting introduces light to the lower part of the trunk; this, in some species can encourage epicormic growth from dormant buds. To reduce this sometimes smaller branches are left on the lower part of the trunk. Excessive removal of the lower branches can displace the canopy weight, this will make the tree top heavy, therefore adding stress to the tree. When a branch is removed from the trunk, it creates a large wound. This wound is susceptible to disease and decay, and could lead to reduced trunk stability. Therefore, much time and consideration must be taken when choosing the height the crown is to be lifted to.
This would be an inappropriate operation if the tree species’ form was of a shrubby nature. This would therefore remove most of the foliage and would also largely unbalance the tree. This procedure should not be carried out if the tree is in decline, poor health or dead, dying or dangerous (DDD) as the operation will remove some of the photosynthetic area the tree uses. This will increase the decline rate of the tree and could lead to death.
If the tree is of great importance to an area or town, (i.e. veteran or ancient) then an alternative solution to crown lifting would be to move the target or object so it is not in range. For example, diverting a footpath around a tree's drip line so the crown lift is not needed. Another solution would be to prop up or cable-brace the low hanging branch. This is a non-invasive solution which in some situations may be more economical and environmentally friendly. [12]
Selectively pruning a window of view in a tree.
Reducing the height and or spread of a tree by selectively cutting back to smaller branches and in fruit trees for increasing of light interception and enhancing fruit quality.
A regular form of pruning where certain deciduous species are pruned back to pollard heads every year in the dormant period. This practice is usually commenced on juvenile trees so they can adapt to the harshness of the practice. This practice can be used for tree shaping but is also used in specific species which young branches can be sold for floral arrangements.
Deadheading is the act of removing spent flowers or flowerheads for aesthetics, to prolong bloom for up to several weeks or promote rebloom, or to prevent seeding.
In general, pruning deadwood and small branches can be done at any time of year. Depending on the species, many temperate plants can be pruned either during dormancy in winter, or, for species where winter frost can harm a recently pruned plant, after flowering is completed. In the temperate areas of the northern hemisphere autumn pruning should be avoided, as the spores of disease and decay fungi are abundant at this time of year.
Some woody plants tend to bleed profusely from cuts, such as mesquite and maple. Some callus over slowly, such as magnolia. In this case, they are better pruned during active growth when they can more readily heal. Woody plants that flower early in the season, on spurs that form on wood that has matured the year before, such as apples, should be pruned right after flowering as later pruning will sacrifice flowers the following season. Forsythia, azaleas and lilacs all fall into this category.
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